Molly Stevens: A new way to grow bone

109,863 views ・ 2014-02-18

TED


Please double-click on the English subtitles below to play the video.

00:12
As humans, it's in our nature
0
12462
1699
00:14
to want to improve our health and minimize our suffering.
1
14161
3294
00:17
Whatever life throws at us,
2
17455
1667
00:19
whether it's cancer, diabetes, heart disease,
3
19122
2465
00:21
or even broken bones, we want to try and get better.
4
21587
3192
00:24
Now I'm head of a biomaterials lab,
5
24779
2483
00:27
and I'm really fascinated by the way that humans
6
27262
2740
00:30
have used materials in really creative ways
7
30002
2468
00:32
in the body over time.
8
32470
2744
00:35
Take, for example, this beautiful blue nacre shell.
9
35214
3646
00:38
This was actually used by the Mayans
10
38860
1882
00:40
as an artificial tooth replacement.
11
40742
3539
00:44
We're not quite sure why they did it.
12
44281
1633
00:45
It's hard. It's durable.
13
45914
2576
00:48
But it also had other very nice properties.
14
48490
4118
00:52
In fact, when they put it into the jawbone,
15
52608
2280
00:54
it could integrate into the jaw,
16
54888
2907
00:57
and we know now with very sophisticated
17
57795
2098
00:59
imaging technologies
18
59893
1673
01:01
that part of that integration comes from the fact
19
61566
2349
01:03
that this material is designed
20
63915
1687
01:05
in a very specific way, has a beautiful chemistry,
21
65602
2819
01:08
has a beautiful architecture.
22
68421
2228
01:10
And I think in many ways we can sort of think
23
70649
1752
01:12
of the use of the blue nacre shell and the Mayans
24
72401
3007
01:15
as the first real application
25
75408
1520
01:16
of the bluetooth technology.
26
76928
2295
01:19
(Laughter)
27
79223
1462
01:20
But if we move on and think throughout history
28
80685
4393
01:25
how people have used different materials in the body,
29
85078
2984
01:28
very often it's been physicians
30
88062
1714
01:29
that have been quite creative.
31
89776
1392
01:31
They've taken things off the shelf.
32
91168
1968
01:33
One of my favorite examples
33
93136
1885
01:35
is that of Sir Harold Ridley,
34
95036
3242
01:38
who was a famous ophthalmologist,
35
98278
2138
01:40
or at least became a famous ophthalmologist.
36
100416
2568
01:42
And during World War II, what he would see
37
102984
1927
01:44
would be pilots coming back from their missions,
38
104911
2852
01:47
and he noticed that within their eyes
39
107763
1752
01:49
they had shards of small bits of material
40
109515
2940
01:52
lodged within the eye,
41
112455
1520
01:53
but the very interesting thing about it
42
113975
1699
01:55
was that material, actually, wasn't causing
43
115674
2293
01:57
any inflammatory response.
44
117967
2013
01:59
So he looked into this, and he figured out
45
119980
2339
02:02
that actually that material was little shards of plastic
46
122319
2604
02:04
that were coming from the canopy of the Spitfires.
47
124923
2739
02:07
And this led him to propose that material
48
127662
2401
02:10
as a new material for intraocular lenses.
49
130063
2762
02:12
It's called PMMA, and it's now used
50
132825
2105
02:14
in millions of people every year
51
134930
1802
02:16
and helps in preventing cataracts.
52
136732
2769
02:19
And that example, I think, is a really nice one,
53
139501
2309
02:21
because it helps remind us that in the early days,
54
141810
2435
02:24
people often chose materials
55
144245
1953
02:26
because they were bioinert.
56
146198
1885
02:28
Their very purpose was to perform a mechanical function.
57
148083
3512
02:31
You'd put them in the body
58
151595
1450
02:33
and you wouldn't get an adverse response.
59
153045
2164
02:35
And what I want to show you is that
60
155209
1668
02:36
in regenerative medicine,
61
156877
1381
02:38
we've really shifted away from that idea
62
158258
1824
02:40
of taking a bioinert material.
63
160082
1913
02:41
We're actually actively looking for materials
64
161995
2289
02:44
that will be bioactive, that will interact with the body,
65
164284
2968
02:47
and that furthermore we can put in the body,
66
167252
2327
02:49
they'll have their function,
67
169579
1449
02:51
and then they'll dissolve away over time.
68
171028
4550
02:55
If we look at this schematic,
69
175578
1933
02:57
this is showing you what we think of
70
177511
1601
02:59
as the typical tissue-engineering approach.
71
179112
2137
03:01
We have cells there, typically from the patient.
72
181249
2844
03:04
We can put those onto a material,
73
184093
1882
03:05
and we can make that material very complex if we want to,
74
185975
2708
03:08
and we can then grow that up in the lab
75
188708
2170
03:10
or we can put it straight back into the patient.
76
190878
2515
03:13
And this is an approach that's used all over the world,
77
193393
2451
03:15
including in our lab.
78
195844
3523
03:19
But one of the things that's really important
79
199367
2457
03:21
when we're thinking about stem cells
80
201824
1878
03:23
is that obviously stem cells can be many different things,
81
203702
2579
03:26
and they want to be many different things,
82
206281
1764
03:28
and so we want to make sure that the environment
83
208045
1876
03:29
we put them into has enough information
84
209921
2350
03:32
so that they can become the right sort
85
212271
1996
03:34
of specialist tissue.
86
214267
2686
03:36
And if we think about the different types of tissues
87
216953
3063
03:40
that people are looking at regenerating
88
220016
2019
03:42
all over the world, in all the different labs in the world,
89
222035
2311
03:44
there's pretty much every tissue you can think of.
90
224346
2936
03:47
And actually, the structure of those tissues
91
227282
1622
03:48
is quite different, and it's going to really depend
92
228904
2614
03:51
on whether your patient has any underlying disease,
93
231518
2418
03:53
other conditions, in terms of how
94
233936
3050
03:56
you're going to regenerate your tissue,
95
236986
1561
03:58
and you're going to need to think about the materials
96
238547
1985
04:00
you're going to use really carefully,
97
240532
2054
04:02
their biochemistry, their mechanics,
98
242586
1725
04:04
and many other properties as well.
99
244311
3738
04:08
Our tissues all have very different abilities to regenerate,
100
248049
3300
04:11
and here we see poor Prometheus,
101
251349
1742
04:13
who made a rather tricky career choice
102
253091
3093
04:16
and was punished by the Greek gods.
103
256184
2934
04:19
He was tied to a rock, and an eagle would come
104
259118
2321
04:21
every day to eat his liver.
105
261439
1603
04:23
But of course his liver would regenerate every day,
106
263042
2267
04:25
and so day after day he was punished
107
265309
2272
04:27
for eternity by the gods.
108
267581
5797
04:33
And liver will regenerate in this very nice way,
109
273378
3880
04:37
but actually if we think of other tissues,
110
277258
1776
04:39
like cartilage, for example,
111
279034
1769
04:40
even the simplest nick and you're going to find it
112
280803
2056
04:42
really difficult to regenerate your cartilage.
113
282859
2443
04:45
So it's going to be very different from tissue to tissue.
114
285302
3114
04:48
Now, bone is somewhere in between,
115
288416
2800
04:51
and this is one of the tissues that we work on a lot in our lab.
116
291216
2900
04:54
And bone is actually quite good at repairing.
117
294116
1984
04:56
It has to be. We've probably all had fractures
118
296100
2013
04:58
at some point or other.
119
298113
1812
04:59
And one of the ways that you can think
120
299925
2157
05:02
about repairing your fracture
121
302082
1689
05:03
is this procedure here, called an iliac crest harvest.
122
303771
2827
05:06
And what the surgeon might do
123
306598
1666
05:08
is take some bone from your iliac crest,
124
308264
3195
05:11
which is just here,
125
311459
1378
05:12
and then transplant that somewhere else in the body.
126
312837
2524
05:15
And it actually works really well,
127
315361
1600
05:16
because it's your own bone,
128
316961
1499
05:18
and it's well vascularized,
129
318460
1234
05:19
which means it's got a really good blood supply.
130
319694
2369
05:22
But the problem is, there's only so much you can take,
131
322063
2783
05:24
and also when you do that operation,
132
324846
2923
05:27
your patients might actually have significant pain
133
327769
2539
05:30
in that defect site even two years after the operation.
134
330308
3241
05:33
So what we were thinking is,
135
333549
1886
05:35
there's a tremendous need for bone repair, of course,
136
335435
3149
05:38
but this iliac crest-type approach
137
338584
2487
05:41
really has a lot of limitations to it,
138
341071
2432
05:43
and could we perhaps recreate
139
343503
2234
05:45
the generation of bone within the body
140
345737
2169
05:47
on demand and then be able to transplant it
141
347906
3315
05:51
without these very, very painful aftereffects
142
351221
4905
05:56
that you would have with the iliac crest harvest?
143
356126
3683
05:59
And so this is what we did, and the way we did it
144
359809
2662
06:02
was by coming back to this typical tissue-engineering approach
145
362471
3338
06:05
but actually thinking about it rather differently.
146
365809
2387
06:08
And we simplified it a lot,
147
368196
1919
06:10
so we got rid of a lot of these steps.
148
370115
2051
06:12
We got rid of the need to harvest cells from the patient,
149
372166
2374
06:14
we got rid of the need to put in really fancy chemistries,
150
374540
2917
06:17
and we got rid of the need
151
377457
1692
06:19
to culture these scaffolds in the lab.
152
379149
2828
06:21
And what we really focused on
153
381977
2179
06:24
was our material system and making it quite simple,
154
384156
3749
06:27
but because we used it in a really clever way,
155
387905
2325
06:30
we were able to generate enormous amounts of bone
156
390230
2647
06:32
using this approach.
157
392877
1646
06:34
So we were using the body
158
394523
1753
06:36
as really the catalyst to help us
159
396276
2120
06:38
to make lots of new bone.
160
398396
2543
06:40
And it's an approach that we call
161
400939
1583
06:42
the in vivo bioreactor, and we were able to make
162
402522
2811
06:45
enormous amounts of bone using this approach.
163
405333
2486
06:47
And I'll talk you through this.
164
407819
1239
06:49
So what we do is,
165
409058
2480
06:51
in humans, we all have a layer of stem cells
166
411538
2343
06:53
on the outside of our long bones.
167
413881
1888
06:55
That layer is called the periosteum.
168
415769
1703
06:57
And that layer is actually normally
169
417472
2288
06:59
very, very tightly bound to the underlying bone,
170
419760
2649
07:02
and it's got stem cells in it.
171
422409
1432
07:03
Those stem cells are really important
172
423841
1419
07:05
in the embryo when it develops,
173
425260
1809
07:07
and they also sort of wake up if you have a fracture
174
427069
2242
07:09
to help you with repairing the bone.
175
429311
2861
07:12
So we take that periosteum layer
176
432172
2093
07:14
and we developed a way to inject underneath it
177
434265
2990
07:17
a liquid that then, within 30 seconds,
178
437255
2816
07:20
would turn into quite a rigid gel
179
440071
1745
07:21
and can actually lift the periosteum away from the bone.
180
441816
3253
07:25
So it creates, in essence, an artificial cavity
181
445069
3688
07:28
that is right next to both the bone
182
448757
3547
07:32
but also this really rich layer of stem cells.
183
452304
3701
07:36
And we go in through a pinhole incision
184
456005
1612
07:37
so that no other cells from the body can get in,
185
457617
2953
07:40
and what happens is that that artificial in vivo bioreactor cavity
186
460570
4792
07:45
can then lead to the proliferation of these stem cells,
187
465362
2676
07:48
and they can form lots of new tissue,
188
468038
2086
07:50
and then over time, you can harvest that tissue
189
470124
2318
07:52
and use it elsewhere in the body.
190
472442
2948
07:55
This is a histology slide
191
475390
2144
07:57
of what we see when we do that,
192
477534
2170
07:59
and essentially what we see
193
479704
2517
08:02
is very large amounts of bone.
194
482221
1634
08:03
So in this picture, you can see the middle of the leg,
195
483855
2480
08:06
so the bone marrow,
196
486335
1501
08:07
then you can see the original bone,
197
487836
1804
08:09
and you can see where that original bone finishes,
198
489640
2856
08:12
and just to the left of that is the new bone
199
492496
2511
08:15
that's grown within that bioreactor cavity,
200
495007
2037
08:17
and you can actually make it even larger.
201
497044
2431
08:19
And that demarcation that you can see
202
499475
2627
08:22
between the original bone and the new bone
203
502102
2351
08:24
acts as a very slight point of weakness,
204
504453
2013
08:26
so actually now the surgeon can come along,
205
506466
2134
08:28
can harvest away that new bone,
206
508600
2024
08:30
and the periosteum can grow back,
207
510624
2203
08:32
so you're left with the leg
208
512827
1869
08:34
in the same sort of state
209
514696
1550
08:36
as if you hadn't operated on it in the first place.
210
516246
2002
08:38
So it's very, very low in terms of after-pain
211
518248
3849
08:42
compared to an iliac crest harvest.
212
522097
3855
08:45
And you can grow different amounts of bone
213
525952
2104
08:48
depending on how much gel you put in there,
214
528056
2019
08:50
so it really is an on demand sort of procedure.
215
530075
3202
08:53
Now, at the time that we did this,
216
533277
2202
08:55
this received a lot of attention in the press,
217
535479
3337
08:58
because it was a really nice way
218
538816
2431
09:01
of generating new bone,
219
541247
1466
09:02
and we got many, many contacts
220
542713
1995
09:04
from different people that were interested in using this.
221
544708
2618
09:07
And I'm just going to tell you,
222
547326
1789
09:09
sometimes those contacts are very strange,
223
549115
2953
09:12
slightly unexpected,
224
552068
1860
09:13
and the very most interesting,
225
553928
3062
09:16
let me put it that way, contact that I had,
226
556990
2285
09:19
was actually from a team of American footballers
227
559275
3211
09:22
that all wanted to have double-thickness skulls
228
562486
3380
09:25
made on their head.
229
565866
4281
09:30
And so you do get these kinds of contacts,
230
570156
2724
09:32
and of course, being British
231
572880
2617
09:35
and also growing up in France,
232
575497
1754
09:37
I tend to be very blunt,
233
577251
2142
09:39
and so I had to explain to them very nicely
234
579393
2041
09:41
that in their particular case,
235
581434
1475
09:42
there probably wasn't that much in there
236
582909
2014
09:44
to protect in the first place.
237
584923
2988
09:47
(Laughter)
238
587911
1570
09:49
(Applause)
239
589481
1253
09:50
So this was our approach,
240
590734
1855
09:52
and it was simple materials,
241
592589
1644
09:54
but we thought about it carefully.
242
594233
1987
09:56
And actually we know that those cells
243
596220
1620
09:57
in the body, in the embryo, as they develop
244
597840
2138
09:59
can form a different kind of tissue, cartilage,
245
599978
3229
10:03
and so we developed a gel that was slightly different
246
603207
2555
10:05
in nature and slightly different chemistry,
247
605762
2419
10:08
put it in there, and we were able to get
248
608181
2147
10:10
100 percent cartilage instead.
249
610328
2178
10:12
And this approach works really well, I think,
250
612506
2008
10:14
for pre-planned procedures,
251
614514
2482
10:16
but it's something you do have to pre-plan.
252
616996
2872
10:19
So for other kinds of operations,
253
619868
2268
10:22
there's definitely a need for other
254
622136
1697
10:23
scaffold-based approaches.
255
623833
2503
10:26
And when you think about designing
256
626336
2369
10:28
those other scaffolds, actually,
257
628705
1638
10:30
you need a really multi-disciplinary team.
258
630343
1971
10:32
And so our team has chemists,
259
632314
2065
10:34
it has cell biologists, surgeons, physicists even,
260
634379
3377
10:37
and those people all come together
261
637756
2030
10:39
and we think really hard about designing the materials.
262
639786
2411
10:42
But we want to make them have enough information
263
642197
2966
10:45
that we can get the cells to do what we want,
264
645163
2154
10:47
but not be so complex as to make it difficult
265
647317
2377
10:49
to get to clinic.
266
649694
1743
10:51
And so one of the things we think about a lot
267
651437
2751
10:54
is really trying to understand
268
654188
1795
10:55
the structure of the tissues in the body.
269
655983
2377
10:58
And so if we think of bone,
270
658360
1660
11:00
obviously my own favorite tissue,
271
660020
2624
11:02
we zoom in, we can see,
272
662644
1557
11:04
even if you don't know anything about bone structure,
273
664201
1882
11:06
it's beautifully organized, really beautifully organized.
274
666083
2545
11:08
We've lots of blood vessels in there.
275
668628
1887
11:10
And if we zoom in again, we see that the cells
276
670515
2339
11:12
are actually surrounded by a 3D matrix
277
672854
2972
11:15
of nano-scale fibers, and they give a lot
278
675826
2171
11:17
of information to the cells.
279
677997
2182
11:20
And if we zoom in again,
280
680179
1614
11:21
actually in the case of bone, the matrix
281
681793
2201
11:23
around the cells is beautifully organized
282
683994
2151
11:26
at the nano scale, and it's a hybrid material
283
686145
2467
11:28
that's part organic, part inorganic.
284
688612
2584
11:31
And that's led to a whole field, really,
285
691196
2072
11:33
that has looked at developing materials
286
693268
2391
11:35
that have this hybrid kind of structure.
287
695659
2748
11:38
And so I'm showing here just two examples
288
698407
3278
11:41
where we've made some materials that have that sort of structure,
289
701685
3120
11:44
and you can really tailor it.
290
704805
1438
11:46
You can see here a very squishy one
291
706243
2064
11:48
and now a material that's also this hybrid sort of material
292
708307
4099
11:52
but actually has remarkable toughness,
293
712406
1947
11:54
and it's no longer brittle.
294
714369
1460
11:55
And an inorganic material would normally be really brittle,
295
715829
2456
11:58
and you wouldn't be able to have
296
718285
1440
11:59
that sort of strength and toughness in it.
297
719725
2188
12:01
One other thing I want to quickly mention is that
298
721913
2489
12:04
many of the scaffolds we make are porous, and they have to be,
299
724402
2715
12:07
because you want blood vessels to grow in there.
300
727117
2103
12:09
But the pores are actually oftentimes
301
729220
1877
12:11
much bigger than the cells,
302
731097
1293
12:12
and so even though it's 3D,
303
732390
1711
12:14
the cell might see it more as a slightly curved surface,
304
734101
3355
12:17
and that's a little bit unnatural.
305
737456
1676
12:19
And so one of the things you can think about doing
306
739132
2248
12:21
is actually making scaffolds with slightly different dimensions
307
741380
3148
12:24
that might be able to surround your cells in 3D
308
744528
2793
12:27
and give them a little bit more information.
309
747321
2569
12:29
And there's a lot of work going on in both of these areas.
310
749890
3567
12:33
Now finally, I just want to talk a little bit about
311
753471
3969
12:37
applying this sort of thing to cardiovascular disease,
312
757440
2708
12:40
because this is a really big clinical problem.
313
760148
3263
12:43
And one of the things that we know is that,
314
763411
3585
12:46
unfortunately, if you have a heart attack,
315
766996
2239
12:49
then that tissue can start to die,
316
769235
2902
12:52
and your outcome may not be very good over time.
317
772137
3751
12:55
And it would be really great, actually,
318
775888
1710
12:57
if we could stop that dead tissue
319
777598
1919
12:59
either from dying or help it to regenerate.
320
779517
3985
13:03
And there's lots and lots of stem cell trials going on worldwide,
321
783502
3248
13:06
and they use many different types of cells,
322
786750
2072
13:08
but one common theme that seems to be coming out
323
788822
2352
13:11
is that actually, very often, those cells will die
324
791174
2999
13:14
once you've implanted them.
325
794173
1795
13:15
And you can either put them into the heart
326
795968
1875
13:17
or into the blood system,
327
797843
2020
13:19
but either way, we don't seem to be able
328
799863
2362
13:22
to get quite the right number of cells
329
802225
1867
13:24
getting to the location we want them to
330
804092
2242
13:26
and being able to deliver the sort of beautiful
331
806334
4494
13:30
cell regeneration that we would like to have
332
810828
2740
13:33
to get good clinical outcomes.
333
813568
3417
13:36
And so some of the things that we're thinking of,
334
816985
1983
13:38
and many other people in the field are thinking of,
335
818968
3121
13:42
are actually developing materials for that.
336
822089
3006
13:45
But there's a difference here.
337
825095
1619
13:46
We still need chemistry, we still need mechanics,
338
826714
2210
13:48
we still need really interesting topography,
339
828924
2671
13:51
and we still need really interesting ways to surround the cells.
340
831595
2648
13:54
But now, the cells also
341
834243
2511
13:56
would probably quite like a material
342
836754
2025
13:58
that's going to be able to be conductive,
343
838779
2018
14:00
because the cells themselves will respond very well
344
840797
4209
14:05
and will actually conduct signals between themselves.
345
845006
3479
14:08
You can see them now
346
848485
1516
14:10
beating synchronously on these materials,
347
850001
2475
14:12
and that's a very, very exciting development
348
852476
2779
14:15
that's going on.
349
855255
2114
14:17
So just to wrap up, I'd like to actually say that
350
857369
4824
14:22
being able to work in this sort of field,
351
862193
2356
14:24
all of us that work in this field
352
864549
1654
14:26
that's not only super-exciting science,
353
866203
2509
14:28
but also has the potential
354
868712
2046
14:30
to impact on patients,
355
870758
1968
14:32
however big or small they are,
356
872726
2430
14:35
is really a great privilege.
357
875156
1553
14:36
And so for that, I'd like to thank all of you as well.
358
876709
3144
14:39
Thank you.
359
879853
1317
14:41
(Applause)
360
881170
4924
About this website

This site will introduce you to YouTube videos that are useful for learning English. You will see English lessons taught by top-notch teachers from around the world. Double-click on the English subtitles displayed on each video page to play the video from there. The subtitles scroll in sync with the video playback. If you have any comments or requests, please contact us using this contact form.

https://forms.gle/WvT1wiN1qDtmnspy7