Molly Stevens: A new way to grow bone

109,969 views ・ 2014-02-18

TED


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00:12
As humans, it's in our nature
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to want to improve our health and minimize our suffering.
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Whatever life throws at us,
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whether it's cancer, diabetes, heart disease,
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or even broken bones, we want to try and get better.
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Now I'm head of a biomaterials lab,
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and I'm really fascinated by the way that humans
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have used materials in really creative ways
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in the body over time.
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Take, for example, this beautiful blue nacre shell.
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This was actually used by the Mayans
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as an artificial tooth replacement.
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We're not quite sure why they did it.
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It's hard. It's durable.
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But it also had other very nice properties.
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In fact, when they put it into the jawbone,
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it could integrate into the jaw,
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and we know now with very sophisticated
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imaging technologies
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that part of that integration comes from the fact
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that this material is designed
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in a very specific way, has a beautiful chemistry,
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has a beautiful architecture.
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And I think in many ways we can sort of think
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of the use of the blue nacre shell and the Mayans
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as the first real application
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of the bluetooth technology.
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(Laughter)
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But if we move on and think throughout history
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how people have used different materials in the body,
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very often it's been physicians
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that have been quite creative.
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They've taken things off the shelf.
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One of my favorite examples
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is that of Sir Harold Ridley,
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who was a famous ophthalmologist,
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or at least became a famous ophthalmologist.
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And during World War II, what he would see
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would be pilots coming back from their missions,
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and he noticed that within their eyes
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they had shards of small bits of material
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lodged within the eye,
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but the very interesting thing about it
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was that material, actually, wasn't causing
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any inflammatory response.
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So he looked into this, and he figured out
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that actually that material was little shards of plastic
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that were coming from the canopy of the Spitfires.
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And this led him to propose that material
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as a new material for intraocular lenses.
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It's called PMMA, and it's now used
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in millions of people every year
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and helps in preventing cataracts.
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And that example, I think, is a really nice one,
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because it helps remind us that in the early days,
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people often chose materials
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because they were bioinert.
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Their very purpose was to perform a mechanical function.
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You'd put them in the body
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and you wouldn't get an adverse response.
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And what I want to show you is that
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in regenerative medicine,
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we've really shifted away from that idea
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of taking a bioinert material.
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We're actually actively looking for materials
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that will be bioactive, that will interact with the body,
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and that furthermore we can put in the body,
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they'll have their function,
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and then they'll dissolve away over time.
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If we look at this schematic,
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this is showing you what we think of
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as the typical tissue-engineering approach.
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We have cells there, typically from the patient.
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We can put those onto a material,
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and we can make that material very complex if we want to,
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and we can then grow that up in the lab
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or we can put it straight back into the patient.
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And this is an approach that's used all over the world,
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including in our lab.
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But one of the things that's really important
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when we're thinking about stem cells
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is that obviously stem cells can be many different things,
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and they want to be many different things,
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and so we want to make sure that the environment
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we put them into has enough information
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so that they can become the right sort
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of specialist tissue.
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And if we think about the different types of tissues
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that people are looking at regenerating
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all over the world, in all the different labs in the world,
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there's pretty much every tissue you can think of.
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And actually, the structure of those tissues
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is quite different, and it's going to really depend
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on whether your patient has any underlying disease,
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other conditions, in terms of how
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you're going to regenerate your tissue,
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and you're going to need to think about the materials
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you're going to use really carefully,
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their biochemistry, their mechanics,
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and many other properties as well.
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Our tissues all have very different abilities to regenerate,
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and here we see poor Prometheus,
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who made a rather tricky career choice
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and was punished by the Greek gods.
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He was tied to a rock, and an eagle would come
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every day to eat his liver.
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But of course his liver would regenerate every day,
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and so day after day he was punished
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for eternity by the gods.
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And liver will regenerate in this very nice way,
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but actually if we think of other tissues,
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like cartilage, for example,
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even the simplest nick and you're going to find it
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really difficult to regenerate your cartilage.
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So it's going to be very different from tissue to tissue.
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Now, bone is somewhere in between,
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and this is one of the tissues that we work on a lot in our lab.
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And bone is actually quite good at repairing.
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It has to be. We've probably all had fractures
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at some point or other.
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And one of the ways that you can think
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about repairing your fracture
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is this procedure here, called an iliac crest harvest.
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And what the surgeon might do
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is take some bone from your iliac crest,
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which is just here,
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and then transplant that somewhere else in the body.
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And it actually works really well,
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because it's your own bone,
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and it's well vascularized,
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which means it's got a really good blood supply.
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But the problem is, there's only so much you can take,
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and also when you do that operation,
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your patients might actually have significant pain
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in that defect site even two years after the operation.
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So what we were thinking is,
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there's a tremendous need for bone repair, of course,
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but this iliac crest-type approach
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really has a lot of limitations to it,
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and could we perhaps recreate
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the generation of bone within the body
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on demand and then be able to transplant it
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without these very, very painful aftereffects
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that you would have with the iliac crest harvest?
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And so this is what we did, and the way we did it
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was by coming back to this typical tissue-engineering approach
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but actually thinking about it rather differently.
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And we simplified it a lot,
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so we got rid of a lot of these steps.
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We got rid of the need to harvest cells from the patient,
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we got rid of the need to put in really fancy chemistries,
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and we got rid of the need
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to culture these scaffolds in the lab.
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And what we really focused on
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was our material system and making it quite simple,
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but because we used it in a really clever way,
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we were able to generate enormous amounts of bone
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using this approach.
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So we were using the body
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as really the catalyst to help us
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to make lots of new bone.
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And it's an approach that we call
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the in vivo bioreactor, and we were able to make
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enormous amounts of bone using this approach.
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And I'll talk you through this.
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So what we do is,
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in humans, we all have a layer of stem cells
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on the outside of our long bones.
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That layer is called the periosteum.
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And that layer is actually normally
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very, very tightly bound to the underlying bone,
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and it's got stem cells in it.
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Those stem cells are really important
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in the embryo when it develops,
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and they also sort of wake up if you have a fracture
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to help you with repairing the bone.
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So we take that periosteum layer
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and we developed a way to inject underneath it
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a liquid that then, within 30 seconds,
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would turn into quite a rigid gel
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and can actually lift the periosteum away from the bone.
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So it creates, in essence, an artificial cavity
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that is right next to both the bone
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but also this really rich layer of stem cells.
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And we go in through a pinhole incision
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so that no other cells from the body can get in,
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and what happens is that that artificial in vivo bioreactor cavity
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can then lead to the proliferation of these stem cells,
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and they can form lots of new tissue,
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and then over time, you can harvest that tissue
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and use it elsewhere in the body.
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This is a histology slide
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of what we see when we do that,
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and essentially what we see
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is very large amounts of bone.
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So in this picture, you can see the middle of the leg,
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so the bone marrow,
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then you can see the original bone,
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and you can see where that original bone finishes,
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and just to the left of that is the new bone
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that's grown within that bioreactor cavity,
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and you can actually make it even larger.
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And that demarcation that you can see
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between the original bone and the new bone
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acts as a very slight point of weakness,
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so actually now the surgeon can come along,
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can harvest away that new bone,
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and the periosteum can grow back,
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so you're left with the leg
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in the same sort of state
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as if you hadn't operated on it in the first place.
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So it's very, very low in terms of after-pain
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compared to an iliac crest harvest.
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And you can grow different amounts of bone
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depending on how much gel you put in there,
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so it really is an on demand sort of procedure.
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Now, at the time that we did this,
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this received a lot of attention in the press,
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because it was a really nice way
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of generating new bone,
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and we got many, many contacts
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from different people that were interested in using this.
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And I'm just going to tell you,
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sometimes those contacts are very strange,
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slightly unexpected,
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and the very most interesting,
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let me put it that way, contact that I had,
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was actually from a team of American footballers
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that all wanted to have double-thickness skulls
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made on their head.
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And so you do get these kinds of contacts,
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and of course, being British
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and also growing up in France,
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I tend to be very blunt,
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and so I had to explain to them very nicely
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that in their particular case,
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there probably wasn't that much in there
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to protect in the first place.
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(Laughter)
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(Applause)
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So this was our approach,
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and it was simple materials,
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but we thought about it carefully.
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And actually we know that those cells
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in the body, in the embryo, as they develop
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can form a different kind of tissue, cartilage,
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and so we developed a gel that was slightly different
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in nature and slightly different chemistry,
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put it in there, and we were able to get
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100 percent cartilage instead.
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And this approach works really well, I think,
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for pre-planned procedures,
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but it's something you do have to pre-plan.
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So for other kinds of operations,
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there's definitely a need for other
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scaffold-based approaches.
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And when you think about designing
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those other scaffolds, actually,
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you need a really multi-disciplinary team.
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And so our team has chemists,
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it has cell biologists, surgeons, physicists even,
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and those people all come together
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and we think really hard about designing the materials.
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But we want to make them have enough information
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that we can get the cells to do what we want,
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but not be so complex as to make it difficult
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to get to clinic.
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And so one of the things we think about a lot
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is really trying to understand
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the structure of the tissues in the body.
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And so if we think of bone,
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obviously my own favorite tissue,
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we zoom in, we can see,
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even if you don't know anything about bone structure,
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it's beautifully organized, really beautifully organized.
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We've lots of blood vessels in there.
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And if we zoom in again, we see that the cells
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are actually surrounded by a 3D matrix
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of nano-scale fibers, and they give a lot
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of information to the cells.
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And if we zoom in again,
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actually in the case of bone, the matrix
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around the cells is beautifully organized
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at the nano scale, and it's a hybrid material
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that's part organic, part inorganic.
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And that's led to a whole field, really,
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that has looked at developing materials
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that have this hybrid kind of structure.
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And so I'm showing here just two examples
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where we've made some materials that have that sort of structure,
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and you can really tailor it.
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You can see here a very squishy one
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and now a material that's also this hybrid sort of material
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but actually has remarkable toughness,
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and it's no longer brittle.
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And an inorganic material would normally be really brittle,
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and you wouldn't be able to have
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that sort of strength and toughness in it.
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One other thing I want to quickly mention is that
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many of the scaffolds we make are porous, and they have to be,
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because you want blood vessels to grow in there.
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But the pores are actually oftentimes
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much bigger than the cells,
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and so even though it's 3D,
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the cell might see it more as a slightly curved surface,
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12:17
and that's a little bit unnatural.
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12:19
And so one of the things you can think about doing
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is actually making scaffolds with slightly different dimensions
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12:24
that might be able to surround your cells in 3D
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12:27
and give them a little bit more information.
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And there's a lot of work going on in both of these areas.
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Now finally, I just want to talk a little bit about
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applying this sort of thing to cardiovascular disease,
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because this is a really big clinical problem.
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And one of the things that we know is that,
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unfortunately, if you have a heart attack,
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then that tissue can start to die,
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and your outcome may not be very good over time.
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And it would be really great, actually,
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if we could stop that dead tissue
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either from dying or help it to regenerate.
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13:03
And there's lots and lots of stem cell trials going on worldwide,
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13:06
and they use many different types of cells,
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but one common theme that seems to be coming out
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is that actually, very often, those cells will die
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once you've implanted them.
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And you can either put them into the heart
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or into the blood system,
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13:19
but either way, we don't seem to be able
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13:22
to get quite the right number of cells
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13:24
getting to the location we want them to
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13:26
and being able to deliver the sort of beautiful
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cell regeneration that we would like to have
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to get good clinical outcomes.
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And so some of the things that we're thinking of,
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13:38
and many other people in the field are thinking of,
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are actually developing materials for that.
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13:45
But there's a difference here.
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We still need chemistry, we still need mechanics,
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we still need really interesting topography,
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13:51
and we still need really interesting ways to surround the cells.
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But now, the cells also
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13:56
would probably quite like a material
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13:58
that's going to be able to be conductive,
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14:00
because the cells themselves will respond very well
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14:05
and will actually conduct signals between themselves.
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You can see them now
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beating synchronously on these materials,
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14:12
and that's a very, very exciting development
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14:15
that's going on.
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14:17
So just to wrap up, I'd like to actually say that
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being able to work in this sort of field,
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14:24
all of us that work in this field
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14:26
that's not only super-exciting science,
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14:28
but also has the potential
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14:30
to impact on patients,
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14:32
however big or small they are,
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is really a great privilege.
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And so for that, I'd like to thank all of you as well.
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Thank you.
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(Applause)
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