Why are US cities still so segregated? - Kevin Ehrman-Solberg and Kirsten Delegard

譯者: Man Chun Ma 審譯者: Thomas Tam

On October 21st, 1909, 125 residents of an affluent Minneapolis neighborhood

1909 年 10 月 21 日，明尼亞波里斯 富人區的 125 名居民

approached William Simpson, who’d just bought a plot in the area,

逼近在這個區域剛購買 一塊小地皮的威廉·辛普森，

and told him to leave.

要求他離開。

The Simpsons would be the second Black family

辛普森家族是這清一色白人社區中的

in the otherwise white neighborhood, where they intended to build a home.

第二個黑人家庭， 他們想在此落地生根。

When the Simpsons refused offers to buy them out,

在辛普森家族拒絕被錢打發後，

their neighbors tried blocking their home’s construction.

鄰居嘗試阻擋他們房子的施工。

They finally moved into their house, but the incident had a ripple effect.

他們最終成功搬了進去， 但同時間，卻引起了連鎖反應。

Just a few months after the mob harassed the Simpsons,

在辛普森家族被暴民 騷擾僅僅數個月後，

the first racially restrictive covenant was put into place in Minneapolis.

明尼亞波里斯社區實施了 第一條種族限制條款。

Covenants are agreements in property deeds that are intended to regulate

條款是存在於產業契約的協議中，

how the property is to be used.

用意是控制產業如何使用。

Beginning in the mid-1800s,

從十九世紀中期開始，

people in the United States and elsewhere began employing them in a new way:

美國和其他地方的人 開始賦予條款新的意義：

specifically, to racially restrict properties.

專門限制使用產業的種族。

They wrote clauses into deeds that were meant to prevent all future owners

他們在契約中立下條款， 防止所有的未來持有人

from selling or leasing to certain racial and ethnic groups,

出售或租借予特定種族與族群，

especially Black people.

特別是黑人。

Between 1920 and 1950,

在 1920 到 1950 年間，

these racial covenants spread like wildfire throughout the US,

這些種族的條款在美國火速蔓延，

making cities more segregated and the suburbs more restricted.

使城市更隔離， 市郊更受限制。

In the county encompassing Minneapolis,

在包括明尼阿波利斯在內的縣城，

racial covenants eventually appeared on the deeds to more than 25,000 homes.

種族條款最終出現在超過 25,000 份房屋契約中。

Not only was this legal,

這不只合法，

but the US Federal Housing Administration

美國聯邦住房管理局更在

promoted racial covenants in their underwriting manual.

承保指南中推廣種族條約。

While constructing new homes,

在興建房屋時，

real estate developers began racially restricting them from the outset.

房地產開發商從一開始 就實施種族限制。

Developments were planned as dream communities for American families—

發展項目標榜爲美國家庭的夢想社區，

but for white people only.

但只適用於白人。

In 1947, one company began building what became widely recognized

在 1947 年，一間公司 開始建造紐約萊維敦，

as the prototype of the postwar American suburb: Levittown, New York.

日後變成廣受認可的 戰後美國市郊的樣板。

It was a community of more than 17,000 identical homes.

這是個有超過 17,000 棟 完全相同房屋的社區。

它們每棟售價約爲 $7,000 美元，

They cost around $7,000 each and were intended to be affordable

計劃爲從二戰回歸的退伍軍人 提供可負擔的房屋。

for returning World War II veterans.

But, according to Levittown’s racial covenants, none of the houses

但是，根據萊維敦的種族條款，

could “be used or occupied by any person other than members of the Caucasian race,”

所有房屋「不得被高加索人種（白人） 以外的其他種族者使用或持有」，

with one exception: servants.

只有傭人例外。

Between 1950 and 1970,

從 1950 到 1970 年，

the population of the American suburbs nearly doubled

美國市郊人口增加了約一倍，

as white people flocked to more racially homogenous areas

白人大量湧入純白人社區，

in a phenomenon known as “white flight.”

這個現象稱爲「白人群飛」。

The suburbs spread,

白人在市郊擴散，

replacing native ecosystems with miles of pavement and water-guzzling lawns.

用數英里的道路和耗水的草坪 取代原有的生態系統。

And their diffuse layout necessitated car travel.

而它們擴散的佈局令汽車變成必需品。

American automobile production quadrupled between 1946 and 1955,

1946 到 1955 年間， 美國汽車產量翻了四倍，

cementing the nation's dependence on cars.

加強了每個人對汽車的依賴。

Federal programs like the G.I. Bill offered American veterans

美國軍人權利法案等的聯邦法案 向退伍軍人提供

favorable lending rates for buying homes.

購房的低息貸款。

But it was difficult for people of color to take advantage of such resources.

但有色人種難以獲得這些資源。

Racial covenants restricted them from certain neighborhoods.

種族條款限制他們進入特定社區。

And, at the same time, government programs labelled neighborhoods of color

而同時，政府計劃把有色人種社區

bad investments and often refused to insure mortgages in those areas.

標記爲劣等投資，拒絕 爲那些地區提供抵押貸款投保。

Therefore, banks usually wouldn’t lend money to people purchasing property

因此，銀行通常不會借錢給

in neighborhoods of color— a practice that became known as redlining.

購買有色人種社區物業的人。 這種做法被稱為紅線制度。

So, instead of owning homes that increased in value over time,

因此有色人種無法擁有

creating wealth that could be passed to future generations,

隨時間增值的房屋傳給下一代，

many people of color were forced to spend their income on rent.

他們也被迫把收入花在租金上。

And even when they were able to buy property,

而就算他們能夠買、

their home’s value was less likely to increase.

房產也難於升值。

The suburbs boasted cul-de-sacs and dead ends that minimized traffic.

市郊地區都擁有死胡同， 最大程度限制了該地區的交通。

Meanwhile, city planners often identified redlined neighborhoods

同時，城市規劃師常把紅線社區

as inexpensive areas for industrial development.

列爲適合工業發展的便宜地區。

So, the massive freeway projects of the mid-20th century

因此二十世紀中期的大型高速公路項目

disproportionately cut through redlined neighborhoods,

不成比例地大量跨越紅線社區，

accompanied by heavy industry and pollution.

伴隨着重工業和污染。

As a result, many neighborhoods of color experience higher rates

因此，很多有色人種社區的居民

of drinking water contamination, asthma, and other health issues.

有更高機率受食水污染、 哮喘和其他健康問題所苦。

People targeted by racial covenants increasingly challenged them in court

被種族條款針對的人們 越來越多在法院上訴，

and, in 1968, they were finally banned under the Fair Housing Act.

而 1968 年的公平住房法案 終於禁止了這些條款。

But the damage had been done.

但是傷害以成，無法消除。

Racial covenants concentrated wealth and amenities in white neighborhoods

種族條款使財富和便利設施 集中在白人社區，

and depressed the conditions and home values in neighborhoods of color.

並且壓低了有色人種社區的 生活素質和房屋價值。

As of 2020, about 74% of white families in the US owned their homes,

在 2020 年，74% 的白人家庭 擁有自己的房屋，

while about 44% of Black families did.

而黑人家庭則只有 44%。

That gap is greatest in Minnesota’s Twin Cities.

明尼蘇達雙子城的差距最爲嚴重。

Across the country, neighborhoods remain segregated

縱觀美國全地，種族隔離仍然存在，

and 90% of all suburban counties are predominantly white.

而 90% 的市郊縣，白人占大多數。

Some landlords, real estate agents, and lenders

有些地主、地產經紀和放貸者，

still discriminate against people based on race—

仍然會歧視有色種族，

rejecting them, steering them to and away from certain neighborhoods,

拒絕他們，讓他們 遠離或集中在特定社區，

or providing inaccessibly high interest rates.

亦或者提供難以負擔的高利息。

Gentrification and exclusionary zoning practices also still displace

高檔化和排他性的分區措施

and keep people of color out of certain neighborhoods.

仍然逼使有色人種遠離特定社區。

Racial covenants are now illegal.

現在種族條款是違法的，

But they can still be seen on many housing deeds.

但它們仍然常見於很多房產契約上。

The legacy of racial covenants is etched across the pristine lawns

種族條款的遺害仍然在

美國市郊的嶄新草坪上留有痕跡，

of the American suburbs.

It’s a footnote in the demographic divides of every city.

就是每個城市種族差異的註腳。

And it’s one of the insidious architects of the hidden inequalities

它是塑造世界隱藏不平等的

that shape our world.

陰險建築師之一。