How do we safely study living brains? - John Borghi and Elizabeth Waters

521,307 views ใƒป 2018-04-26

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Ido Dekkers ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Sigal Tifferet
00:11
As far as we know,
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ืœืžื™ื˜ื‘ ื™ื“ื™ืขืชื ื•,
00:13
thereโ€™s only one thing in our solar system sophisticated enough to study itself:
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ืจืง ื“ื‘ืจ ืื—ื“ ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืฉืžืฉ ืฉืœื ื• ืžืชื•ื—ื›ื ืžืกืคื™ืง ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืืช ืขืฆืžื•:
00:19
the human brain.
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ื”ืžื•ื— ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™.
00:21
But this self-investigation is incredibly challenging;
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ืขืฆืžื™ ื”ื–ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืžืืชื’ืจ;
00:24
a living brain is shielded by a thick skull,
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ืžื•ื— ื—ื™ ืžื•ื’ืŸ ื‘ื’ื•ืœื’ื•ืœืช ืขื‘ื”,
00:27
swaddled in layers of protective tissue,
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ืžื•ืงืฃ ื‘ืฉื›ื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืจืงืžื•ืช ืžื’ืŸ,
00:30
and made up of billions of tiny, connected cells.
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ื•ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ ืžืžื™ืœืืจื“ื™ ืชืื™ื ื–ืขื™ืจื™ื ืžื—ื•ื‘ืจื™ื.
00:33
Thatโ€™s why itโ€™s so difficult to isolate, observe, and understand diseases
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ืœื›ืŸ ืงืฉื” ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืœื‘ื•ื“ื“ ืื•ืชื• ื•ืœืื‘ื—ืŸ ื•ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ืžื—ืœื•ืชื™ื•,
00:38
like Alzheimerโ€™s.
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ื›ืžื• ืืœืฆื”ื™ื™ืžืจ.
00:39
So how do we study living brains without harming their owners?
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ืื– ืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืžื•ื—ื•ืช ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ืœื™ ืœื”ื–ื™ืง ืœื‘ืขืœื™ื”ื?
00:44
We can use a trio of techniques called EEG,
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ืฉื ืงืจืื•ืช EEG,
00:47
fMRI,
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fMRI,
00:48
and PET.
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ื•-PET.
00:49
Each measures something different and has its own strengths and weaknesses,
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ื›ืœ ืฉื™ื˜ื” ืžื•ื“ื“ืช ื“ื‘ืจ ืื—ืจ ื•ื‘ืขืœืช ื—ื•ื–ืงื•ืช ื•ื—ื•ืœืฉื•ืช,
00:53
and weโ€™ll look at each in turn.
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ื•ื ื‘ื—ืŸ ื›ืœ ืื—ืช ื‘ืชื•ืจื”.
00:55
First is EEG, or electroencephalography,
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ืจืืฉื™ืช, ื”-EEG, ืื• ืืœืงื˜ืจื•-ืื ืฆืคืœื•ื’ืจืคื™ื”,
00:59
which measures electrical activity in your brain.
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ืฉืžื•ื“ื“ืช ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื—ืฉืžืœื™ืช ื‘ืžื•ื— ืฉืœื›ื.
01:03
As brain cells communicate, they produce waves of electricity.
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ื›ืฉืชืื™ ืžื•ื— ืžืชืงืฉืจื™ื, ื”ื ืžื™ื™ืฆืจื™ื ื’ืœื™ ื—ืฉืžืœ.
01:07
Electrodes placed on the skull pick up these waves,
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ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื“ื•ืช ืฉืžืžื•ืงืžื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ื’ื•ืœื’ื•ืœืช ืžื–ื”ื•ืช ืืช ื”ื’ืœื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
01:10
and differences in the signals detected between electrodes
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ื•ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื‘ืื•ืชื•ืช ื”ืžื–ื•ื”ื™ื ื‘ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื“ื•ืช
01:14
provide information about whatโ€™s happening.
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ืžืกืคืงื™ื ืžื™ื“ืข ืขืœ ืžื” ืฉืงื•ืจื”.
01:17
This technique was invented almost 100 years ago,
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ื”ืฉื™ื˜ื” ื”ื–ื• ื”ื•ืžืฆืื” ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืžืขื˜ 100 ืฉื ื”,
01:20
and itโ€™s still used to diagnose conditions like epilepsy and sleep disorders.
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ื•ื”ื™ื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืžืฉืžืฉืช ืœืื‘ื—ื•ืŸ ืžืฆื‘ื™ื ื›ืžื• ืืคื™ืœืคืกื™ื” ื•ื”ืคืจืขื•ืช ืฉื™ื ื”.
01:25
Itโ€™s also used to investigate what areas of the brain are active
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ื”ื™ื ื’ื ืžืฉืžืฉืช ืœื‘ื—ื™ื ืช ื”ืื–ื•ืจื™ื ื”ืคืขื™ืœื™ื ื‘ืžื•ื—
01:28
during learning or paying attention.
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ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืื• ื”ืคืขืœืช ืงืฉื‘.
01:31
EEG is non-invasive,
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EEG ื”ื•ื ื‘ืœืชื™ ื—ื•ื“ืจื ื™,
01:32
relatively inexpensive,
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ื™ื—ืกื™ืช ื–ื•ืœ,
01:34
and fast:
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ื•ืžื”ื™ืจ.
01:36
it can measure changes that occur in just milliseconds.
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ื”ื•ื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืžื“ื•ื“ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืฉืžืชืจื—ืฉื™ื ืชื•ืš ืžื™ืœื™-ืฉื ื™ื•ืช.
01:39
Unfortunately, itโ€™s hard to determine
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ืœืžืจื‘ื” ื”ืฆืขืจ, ืงืฉื” ืœืงื‘ื•ืข
01:41
exactly where any particular pattern originates.
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ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืžืชื—ื™ืœื” ื›ืœ ืชื‘ื ื™ืช.
01:45
Electrical signals are generated constantly all over the brain
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ืื•ืชื•ืช ื—ืฉืžืœื™ื™ื ืžื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื›ืœ ื”ื–ืžืŸ ื‘ื›ืœ ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืžื•ื—
01:48
and they interact with each other to produce complex patterns.
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ื•ื”ื ืžืชืงืฉืจื™ื ืื—ื“ ืขื ื”ืฉื ื™ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืชื‘ื ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื•ืช.
01:52
Using more electrodes or sophisticated data-processing algorithms can help.
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ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื“ื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืืœื’ื•ืจื™ืชืžื™ื ืžืชื•ื—ื›ืžื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืขื–ื•ืจ.
01:57
But in the end, while EEG can tell you precisely when certain activity occurs,
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ, ื‘ืขื•ื“ EEG ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœืกืคืจ ืœื›ื ืžืชื™ ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื”ืชืจื—ืฉื” ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžืช,
02:03
it canโ€™t tell you precisely where.
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ื”ื™ื ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœืกืคืจ ืœื›ื ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื”ื™ื›ืŸ.
02:06
To do that, youโ€™d need another technique,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช, ืืชื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืฉื™ื˜ื” ืื—ืจืช,
02:08
such as functional magnetic resonance imaging, or fMRI.
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ื›ืžื• ื“ื™ืžื•ืช ืžื’ื ื˜ื™ ืคื•ื ืงืฆื™ื•ื ืœื™ ืื• fMRI.
02:13
fMRI measures how quickly oxygen is consumed by brain cells.
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fMRI ืžื•ื“ื“ ื‘ืื™ื–ื• ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื—ืžืฆืŸ ื ืฆืจืš ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืชืื™ ื”ืžื•ื—.
02:17
Active areas of the brain use oxygen more quickly.
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ืื–ื•ืจื™ื ืคืขื™ืœื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื— ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ื—ืžืฆืŸ ืžื”ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ.
02:21
So watching an fMRI scan while a person completes cognitive or behavioral tasks
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ืื– ืฆืคื™ื” ื‘ืกืจื™ืงืช fMRI ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืื“ื ืžืฉืœื™ื ืžืฉื™ืžื•ืช ืงื•ื’ื ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ืช ืื• ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืชื™ื•ืช
02:26
can provide information about which regions of the brain might be involved.
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœืกืคืง ืžื™ื“ืข ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ื ืฉืื•ืœื™ ืžืขื•ืจื‘ื™ื ื‘ืžื•ื—.
02:30
That allows us to study everything from how we see faces
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ื–ื” ืžืืคืฉืจ ืœื ื• ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ื”ื›ืœ ืžืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ืคื ื™ื
02:33
to how we understand what weโ€™re feeling.
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ืœืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื ืžื” ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืจื’ื™ืฉื™ื.
02:36
fMRI can pinpoint differences in brain activity to within a few millimeters,
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fMRI ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ื‘ืžื“ื•ื™ื™ืง ื”ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื‘ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืžื•ื—ื™ืช ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืฉืœ ื›ืžื” ืžื™ืœื™ืžื˜ืจื™ื,
02:41
but itโ€™s thousands of times slower than EEG.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื•ื ืื™ื˜ื™ ื‘ืืœืคื™ ืžื•ื ื™ื ืž-EEG.
02:44
Using the two techniques together
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ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืฉืชื™ ื”ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื—ื“
02:46
can help show when, and where, neural activity is occurring.
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ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืขื–ื•ืจ ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ืžืชื™, ื•ื”ื™ื›ืŸ, ืžืชืจื—ืฉืช ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืžื•ื—ื™ืช.
02:50
The third, even more precise, technique is called positron emission tomography
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ื”ืฉื™ื˜ื” ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ืช, ืืคื™ืœื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื“ื•ื™ื™ืงืช, ื ืงืจืืช ื˜ื•ืžื•ื’ืจืคื™ื™ืช ืคืœื™ื˜ืช ืคื•ื–ื™ื˜ืจื•ื ื™ื PET,
02:56
and it measures radioactive elements introduced into the brain.
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ื•ื”ื™ื ืžื•ื“ื“ืช ืืœืžื ื˜ื™ื ืจื“ื™ื•ืืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื™ื ืฉืžื•ืฆื’ื™ื ืœืžื•ื—.
03:00
That sounds much scarier than it actually is;
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ื–ื” ื ืฉืžืข ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืคื—ื™ื“ ืžืžื” ืฉื–ื” ื‘ืืžืช;
03:03
PET scans, like fMRI and EEG, are completely safe.
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ืกืจื™ืงื•ืช PET, ื›ืžื• ื’ื fMRI ื•-EEG, ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื•ืช ืœื’ืžืจื™.
03:08
During a PET scan, a small amount of radioactive material called a tracer
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื‘ื“ื™ืงืช PET, ื›ืžื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื” ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืžืจ ืจื“ื™ื•ืืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ ืฉื ืงืจื ืขื•ืงื‘
03:13
is injected into the bloodstream,
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ืžื•ื–ืจืงืช ืœืชื•ืš ืžื—ื–ื•ืจ ื”ื“ื,
03:15
and doctors monitor its circulation through the brain.
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ื•ืจื•ืคืื™ื ืžื ื˜ืจื™ื ืืช ื–ืจื™ืžืชื• ื‘ืžื•ื—.
03:19
By modifying the tracer to bind to specific molecules,
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืชืืžืช ื”ืขื•ืงื‘ ื›ืš ืฉื™ืงืฉืจ ืœืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžื•ืช,
03:22
researchers can use PET to study the complex chemistry in our brains.
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ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘-PET ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื›ื™ืžื™ื” ื”ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ืช ื‘ืžื•ื—ื•ืชื™ื ื•.
03:27
Itโ€™s useful for studying how drugs affect the brain
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PET ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉื™ ืœื—ืงืจ ื”ืฉืคืขืช ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืžื•ื—
03:29
and detecting diseases like Alzheimerโ€™s.
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ื•ืœื–ื™ื”ื•ื™ ืžื—ืœื•ืช ื›ืžื• ืืœืฆื”ื™ื™ืžืจ.
03:32
But this technique has the lowest time resolution of all
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืฉื™ื˜ื” ื”ื–ื• ืจื–ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ืช ื”ื–ืžืŸ ื”ื ืžื•ื›ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื›ื•ืœืŸ
03:36
because it takes minutes for the tracer to circulate and changes to show up.
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ื›ื™ ืœื•ืงื— ื“ืงื•ืช ืขื“ ืฉื”ืขื•ืงื‘ ื™ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ื“ื ื•ื ื™ืชืŸ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื.
03:40
These techniques collectively help doctors and scientists
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ื”ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ื™ื—ื“ ืขื•ื–ืจื•ืช ืœืจื•ืคืื™ื ื•ืœืžื“ืขื ื™ื
03:44
connect what happens in the brain with our behavior.
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ืœืงืฉืจ ืืช ืžื” ืฉืงื•ืจื” ื‘ืžื•ื— ืขื ื”ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•.
03:47
But theyโ€™re also limited by how much we still don't know.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืŸ ื’ื ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ื‘ืื™-ื”ื™ื“ื™ืขื” ืฉืœื ื•.
03:51
For example, let's say researchers are interested in studying how memory works.
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ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ื ื’ื™ื“ ืฉื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืžืชืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ืื™ืš ื”ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื•ื‘ื“.
03:55
After asking 50 participants to memorize a series of images while in MRI scanners,
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ืื—ืจื™ ืฉืžื‘ืงืฉื™ื ืž-50 ืžืฉืชืชืคื™ื ืœืฉื ืŸ ืกื“ืจื” ืฉืœ ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืขื•ื“ื ื‘ืชื•ืš ืกื•ืจืง fMRI,
04:00
the researchers might analyze the results
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ื”ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืื•ืœื™ ื™ื ืชื—ื• ืืช ื”ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช
04:03
and discover a number of active brain regions.
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ื•ื™ื’ืœื• ืžืกืคืจ ืื–ื•ืจื™ ืคืขื™ืœื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืžื•ื—.
04:05
Making a link between memory and specific parts of the brain
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ื”ืงื™ืฉื•ืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืœื—ืœืงื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื—
04:09
is an important step forward.
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ื”ื•ื ืฉืœื‘ ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืงื“ื™ืžื”.
04:11
But future research would be necessary
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ืื‘ืœ ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืขืชื™ื“ื™ื™ื ื™ื™ื“ืจืฉื•
04:12
to better understand whatโ€™s happening in each region,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื” ืžืชืจื—ืฉ ื‘ื›ืœ ืื–ื•ืจ,
04:15
how they work together,
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ืื™ืš ื”ื ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื™ื—ื“,
04:17
and whether the activity is because of their involvement in memory
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ื•ืื ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ื™ื ื‘ืฉืœ ื”ืžืขื•ืจื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ืŸ ื‘ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ
04:20
or another process occurring simultaneously.
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ืื• ื‘ืฉืœ ืชื”ืœื™ืš ืื—ืจ ื”ืžืชืจื—ืฉ ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื–ืžืŸ.
04:23
More advanced imaging and analysis technology
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ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ื“ื™ืžื•ืช ื•ื ื™ืชื•ื— ืžืชืงื“ืžื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ
04:26
might one day provide more accurate results
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ื™ืกืคืงื• ืื•ืœื™ ื™ื•ื ืื—ื“ ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื“ื•ื™ื™ืงื•ืช
04:29
and even distinguish
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ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ื™ื‘ื“ื™ืœื•
04:30
the activity of individual neurons.
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ื‘ื™ืŸ ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ื ื™ื•ืจื•ื ื™ื ื‘ื•ื“ื“ื™ื.
04:33
Until then, our brains will keep measuring, analyzing, and innovating
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ืขื“ ืื–, ื”ืžื•ื—ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื• ื™ืžืฉื™ื›ื• ืœืžื“ื•ื“, ืœื ืชื— ื•ืœื—ื“ืฉ
04:37
in pursuit of that quest to understand
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ื‘ืžืจื“ืฃ ืื—ืจ ื”ื”ื‘ื ื”
04:39
one of the most remarkable things weโ€™ve ever encountered.
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ืฉืœ ืื—ื“ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ื›ื™ ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื™ื ืฉืื™ ืคืขื ื ืชืงืœื ื• ื‘ื”ื.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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