How a new species of ancestors is changing our theory of human evolution | Juliet Brophy

301,755 views ・ 2019-03-19

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00:00
Translator: Leslie Gauthier Reviewer: Krystian Aparta
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譯者: Lilian Chiu 審譯者: Bruce Sung
00:13
Human origins.
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人類起源。
00:15
Who are we?
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我們是誰?
00:16
Where do we come from,
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我們來自何處?
00:18
and how do we know?
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我們怎麼知道的?
00:20
In my field, paleoanthropology,
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在我的領域,古人類學,
00:22
we explore human origins --
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我們探究的是人類的起源——
00:24
the "who" and "where" questions --
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「誰」以及「何處」的問題——
00:26
by analyzing fossils that date back thousands and even millions of years.
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做法是分析數千年 甚至數百萬年的化石。
00:32
In 2015, a team of colleagues and I named a new species in the genus Homo --
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2015 年,我和同事組成的團隊
為一個新物種命名, 它隸屬「人屬」——
00:37
our genus --
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和我們同屬——
00:39
Homo naledi.
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納萊迪人(Homo naledi)。
00:42
Let's take a step back and put that into context.
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咱們先倒帶一下,把情境帶進來。
00:47
The last common ancestors between humans and chimps
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人類和黑猩猩的共同祖先 最後出現是在
00:50
date somewhere between six and eight million years.
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約六百萬年前到八百萬年前之間。
00:54
The earliest hominins,
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最早的人族,
00:56
or earliest human ancestors,
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或說最早的人類祖先,
00:57
evolved into a group known as the australopithecines.
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演化成為一般所知的南方古猿。
01:01
The australopithecines evolved into the genus Homo
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南方古猿演化成為人屬,
01:05
and eventually modern humans -- us.
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最終演化成現代人——我們。
01:09
With each new fossil discovery,
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每發現一塊新化石,
01:11
we get a little bit closer to better understanding who we are
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我們就稍微更進一步 了解我們是誰,
01:15
and where we came from.
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及我們來自何處。
01:17
With these new fossil finds,
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因為這些化石的新發現,
01:19
we realize we now have to make changes to this tree.
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我們了解到,我們得要 修改這個樹狀圖。
01:24
Until this discovery,
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在這個發現之前,
01:26
we thought we had a pretty good idea about the patterns of evolutionary change.
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我們以為我們很清楚知道 演化改變的模式。
01:31
Current fossil evidence suggests
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目前的化石證據指出
01:33
that the earliest populations of the genus Homo evolved in Africa
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最早的人屬是在非洲演化出來的,
01:36
somewhere between two and three million years.
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大約在兩百萬到三百萬年間。
01:39
Fast-forward to approximately 300,000 years to where we see the origins
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快轉約三十萬年,
到我們看到最早的 現代人起源之處。
01:43
of the first modern humans.
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01:46
While the fossil record between these time frames in Africa
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雖然在非洲這些時間點 之間的化石記錄
01:49
is relatively sparse,
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相對比較稀少,
01:51
the fossils nonetheless demonstrated certain trends
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但不論如何,化石仍然 顯示出了某些趨勢,
01:54
from our earliest ancestors to modern humans.
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從我們最早的祖先 到現代人的趨勢。
01:58
For example, our brains were becoming larger
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比如,相對於我們的身體, 我們的大腦越來越大。
02:01
relative the rest of our body.
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02:03
Our pelves were becoming more bowl-shaped,
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我們的骨盆越來越像碗形,
02:06
and our hand-wrist morphology, or form,
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我們手腕的形態學,或者說形式,
02:09
suggested a change in our grip as we began to make and use stone tools
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顯示出我們的握法有所不同, 我們開始製造及使用石頭工具,
02:13
and spend less time in the trees.
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花在爬樹上的時間變少。
02:16
These new fossils disrupt everything we thought we knew about these trends
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這些新化石打斷了我們認為 我們對於這些趨勢所知的一切,
02:22
and force us to change the way that we think about human evolution.
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強迫我們改變我們對於 人類演化的看法。
02:28
South Africa in general,
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南非大部分的地方, 但特別是「人類的搖籃」地區,
02:30
but the Cradle of Humankind in particular,
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02:32
contains numerous sites where hundreds of thousands of fossils have been found.
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有許多地點都找出了數十萬件化石。
02:36
As an undergraduate student, I fell in love with one of them ...
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我還是大學生時, 就愛上了其中一件……
02:40
Mrs. Ples.
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普雷斯太太。
02:41
The skull of a 2.1-million-year-old early human ancestor.
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這是 210 萬年前人類祖先的頭骨。
02:45
From that point on,
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從那時起,
02:46
I was determined to go to South Africa and study human evolution.
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我就下決心要到南非 以及研究人類演化。
02:50
I first traveled there in 2003,
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2003 年,我初次到那裡,
02:52
and I did get to see my beloved Mrs. Ples.
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我的確得以見到 我摯愛的普雷斯太太。
02:55
(Laughter)
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(笑聲)
02:56
But words can hardly convey my excitement
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但我的興奮無法言喻,
02:59
when I was chosen as an early career scientist
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因為我被選為青年科學家,
03:02
by Lee Berger,
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且是李貝加挑選的, 他是聞名世界的古人類學家,
03:04
a world-renowned paleoanthropologist,
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03:06
to be one of the primary analysts of recently excavated unpublished fossils.
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讓我擔任主要分析師之一,
分析近期挖出但尚未發佈的化石。
03:13
This treasure trove of fossils was being recovered from a new site
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這些貴重的化石 是在一個新地點發現的,
03:18
called the Dinaledi Chamber in the Rising Star cave system.
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這個地點叫做迪納萊迪洞穴, 屬於新星岩洞體系。
03:23
Species are often named based on a skull, a lower jaw,
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物種通常是根據頭骨、 下顎來命名,
03:27
or, very rarely,
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或,非常罕見的狀況,
03:28
a handful of postcranial, or below-the-neck, elements.
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是用許多顱後或頸後元素來命名。
03:32
The fossils from Dinaledi were another story altogether.
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來自迪納萊迪的化石全部 加在一起又是另一回事了。
03:36
An unprecedented approximately 1800 specimens --
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前所未有,近一千八百個樣本——
03:40
so far --
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只是截至目前為止——
03:41
have been excavated from the Rising Star system,
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已經從新星岩洞體系挖出來,
03:44
representing at least 15 individual skeletons.
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代表至少十五個人的骸骨。
03:50
The research team that I was invited to join
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我被邀請加入一個研究團隊,
03:52
was tasked with describing, comparing and analyzing the fossils,
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其工作任務是在描述、 比較、分析那些化石,
03:56
with the difficult goal of identifying to what species the fossils belonged.
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且有個很困難的目標: 辨識出那些化石屬於什麼物種。
04:01
We were divided up into our different areas of expertise.
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我們被依據專長領域分開來。
04:04
We were divided up in different areas of the lab, too.
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我們也被分到實驗室的不同區域。
04:07
So there was "Hand Land," for the fossil hand people,
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所以,研究化石手的人 在「手部大地」,
04:11
"Hip Heaven" for the pelvis ...
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骨盆的人在「髖部天堂」……
04:13
I was in the "Tooth Booth."
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我則是在「牙齒亭」。
04:15
(Laughter)
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(笑聲)
04:16
And after long, intense days in the lab,
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在實驗室中經過了漫長、 緊繃的白天之後,
04:19
the different teams would meet up at night and discuss our findings,
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不同的團隊會在晚上見面, 討論我們的的發現,
04:22
still consumed by questions from our analyses.
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仍然投注在我們的分析 所產生的問題上。
04:25
It was incredible how different the interpretations were.
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大家的詮釋差異大到不可思議。
04:29
Each body part seemed to come from a different species,
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每個身體部位似乎 都來自不同的物種,
04:32
based on what we knew from the fossil record.
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詮釋根據是我們從化石 記錄習得的知識。
04:35
The suite of characteristics we were seeing didn't match any known species.
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我們所看到的一系列特徵 並不符合任何已知物種。
04:40
And if we had only recovered the skull, we might have called it one thing;
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如果我們只發現了頭骨, 我們可能會稱它是某樣東西;
04:44
if we had only recovered the pelvis, we might have called it another.
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如果只發現了骨盆, 可能又會稱它是另一樣東西。
04:48
The anatomy of the skeletons didn't make sense
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這些骨骸的解剖學並不合理,
04:51
with the framework of what we thought we knew of human evolution.
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用我們對人類演化的既有 知識框架是說不通的。
04:55
Did it belong in the genus Homo?
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它屬於人屬嗎?
04:58
Should it be an australopithecine?
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它會不會是更新世靈長類動物?
05:00
Those bipedal, more apelike ancestors?
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那些兩足動物,更像人猿的祖先?
05:03
Or perhaps it should be its own species.
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或者,也許它自己另屬一種物種。
05:06
Ultimately, after much deliberation,
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最終,經過許多的考量,
05:09
we decided the Rising Star specimens did indeed warrant a new species,
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我們決定這些新星樣本 的確有理由成為一種新物種,
05:13
which we called "Homo naledi."
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我們稱之為納萊迪人。
05:16
From the head to the feet,
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從頭到腳,
05:18
the fossils present a mosaic of primitive, or ancestral,
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這些化石呈現出混合了 原始的,或祖先的特徵
05:22
and derived or more modern-like features.
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以及衍生的,或更像現代的特徵。
05:25
The skull is quite derived,
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頭骨就很明顯是衍生的,
05:28
appearing most similar to early representatives of the genus Homo,
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外觀上很類似早起的人屬代表,
05:31
like Homo habilis and Homo erectus.
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比如巧人和直立人。
05:35
However, the brain is scarcely half the size of a modern human one.
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然而,大腦幾乎不到 現代人大腦的一半。
05:39
One that is smaller than any other early Homo that has ever been found.
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比所有已發現的其他 早期人類的大腦都還要小。
05:45
As someone who studies teeth,
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身為研究牙齒的人,
05:47
I might argue these are the coolest fossils found at the site.
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我可以主張從那個地點挖出的 化石中最酷的就是這些了。
05:50
(Laughter)
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(笑聲)
05:51
The assemblage consists of 190 whole or fragmentary teeth
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這一組化石包含了 190 個 完整或部分牙齒,
05:54
that range in age from very old to very young.
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年齡從非常年輕到非常老都有。
05:58
Like the skeletons,
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和骨骸一樣,
05:59
the teeth present a mix of primitive and derived traits.
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牙齒也呈現出遠古和衍生的特性。
06:03
In modern humans,
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就現代人類來說,
06:04
the third molar is typically the smallest, while the first molar is the biggest,
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第三個臼齒通常 是最小的,第一個最大,
06:09
but Homo naledi has the primitive condition
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但納萊迪人具有原始的狀態,
06:11
where the third molar is the biggest and the first molar is the smallest.
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也就是第三個臼齒最大, 第一個最小。
06:16
The anterior teeth,
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前面的牙齒,也就是門牙和犬齒,
06:17
or the incisors and canines,
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06:19
are small for the genus Homo,
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對於人屬來說很小。
06:22
and the lower canine has a cuspulid on it --
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下犬齒上面有個尖處——
06:25
an extra cuspule that gives it a distinct mitten-like shape
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額外的尖端讓它呈現 獨特的連指手套形狀,
06:29
that it shares with some specimens of the early human, Homo erectus.
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一些早期人類的樣本 也有這個特性,
如直立人。
06:35
The overall shape of the teeth looked odd to me,
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在我看來,牙齒的 整體形狀很奇特。
06:38
so I performed crown-shape analysis
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所以我進行了冠形分析,
06:41
on the occlusal surfaces of deciduous teeth, or baby teeth --
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分析乳牙的咬合表面——
06:46
on your left --
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在你們的左邊——
06:47
and the permanent premolars and molars on your right.
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還有你們右邊的 永久前臼齒及臼齒。
06:51
The deciduous teeth are especially narrow,
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乳牙特別窄,
06:55
and the premolars are unique in their outline shape
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與其他人類祖先相比,
前臼齒的輪廓形狀很獨特。
06:58
compared to other hominids.
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07:00
In fact, when I compare the outlines,
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事實上,我在比較輪廓時,
07:03
when I lay them on top of each other,
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我把它們疊在一起時,
07:04
they look very similar.
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它們看起來非常相似。
07:07
We say they have "low intraspecific variations,"
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我們說,它們的「種內變異很低」。
07:10
so the variation within the species is low.
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也就是在這個物種中的變異很低。
07:12
When I compare this to groups like the australopithecines,
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當我把它和南方古猿 等族群做比較時,
07:15
the intraspecific variation is much larger.
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種內變異就大很多。
07:20
Postcranially, the team concluded
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顱後的部分,團隊的結論是
07:22
that the position of the shoulders suggesting naledi was a climber;
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肩膀的位置,顯示出 納萊迪人會向上攀爬;
07:25
the flared pelvis and curved fingers are all primitive for the genus Homo.
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就人屬來說,喇叭形的骨盆 和彎曲的手指都是原始的特徵。
07:31
On the other hand,
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另一方面,
07:33
the humanlike wrist, long slender legs and modern feet
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像人的手腕、修長的腿, 以及現代的腳,
07:37
are all consistent with other members of the genus.
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都和同屬的其他物種一致。
07:42
In 2017, we announced more specimens of Homo naledi
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2017 年,我們公佈了 更多納萊迪人的樣本,
07:47
from the nearby Lesedi Chamber,
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是從附近的雷沙迪洞穴挖出來的,
07:49
also in the Rising Star cave system.
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也是隸屬新星岩洞體系。
07:52
In addition, our geology team managed to produce an age estimate.
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此外,我們的地質學團隊 做出了時代估計。
07:57
The date's a big deal because, up until now,
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年代是很重要的, 因為,到目前為止,
08:00
we had based our analysis solely on the morphology of the specimens,
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我們的分析全都立基在 樣本的形態學上,
08:04
without previous knowledge of how old something is --
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事先完全不知道 什麼東西有多古老——
08:07
something which could unconsciously bias our interpretations.
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我們的詮釋有可能 在不知不覺中受到偏見影響。
08:11
With its small brain and flared pelvis,
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因為有很小的大腦 以及喇叭形的骨盆,
08:14
we would not have been surprised
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如果最後確認這些化石 是兩百萬年前的,
08:16
if the fossils turned out to be two million years old.
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我們也不會感到意外。
08:19
Instead, the fossils dated
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結果,這些化石的時間
08:21
to 235 to 336 thousand years,
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卻是 23 萬 5 千年 到 33 萬 6 千年之間,
08:26
an incredibly young date for such a small-brained individual.
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就大腦這麼小的人來說, 年代這麼近是很不可思議的。
08:29
So think back to what I said earlier:
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所以,回想一下我剛剛說的:
08:31
we thought that our brains were becoming larger relative to the rest of our body.
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我們以為,相對於我們的身體, 我們的大腦變得越來越大。
08:35
Now we have a small-brained, young individual complicating this idea.
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現在,我們找到了年代更近、 大腦卻很小的人,
讓這個想法變複雜了。
08:41
What does all this mean?
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這一切意味著什麼?
08:44
Homo naledi has taught us
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納萊迪人教我們的是,
08:45
that we need to reassess what it means to be in the genus Homo.
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我們需要重新評估 身為人屬的意義。
08:49
We need to rethink what it means to be human.
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我們需要重新思考 身為人類的意義。
08:51
In fact, most of the characteristics that we use to define the genus Homo,
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事實上,我們用來 定義人屬的大部分特徵,
08:56
such as brain size and hip morphology,
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比如大腦的大小和髖骨的形態學,
08:58
are no longer valid.
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已經不再有效。
09:01
No other species exists with this mix of primitive and derived traits.
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現存的物種當中,沒有一種 同時具有原始和衍生特性。
為什麼在人屬當中有 這麼大的形態學變異?
09:07
Why is there so much morphological variation in the genus Homo?
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09:10
And what force is driving that variation?
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是什麼力量造成了那樣的變異?
09:14
Another implication for these fossils is that for the first time,
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這些化石還有一個意涵, 這是第一次,
09:17
we have concrete evidence of a species coexisting in Africa,
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我們有具體證據證明三十萬年前
09:21
at 300,000 years,
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在非洲有一個物種和現代人共存。
09:23
with modern humans.
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09:25
Until this discovery,
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在這個發現之前,
09:26
we only had large-brained modern humans that existed in Africa.
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在非洲只有大腦很大的現代人存在。
09:33
Did they interbreed with each other?
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他們曾彼此雜交嗎?
09:35
Did they compete with each other?
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他們曾彼此競爭嗎?
09:38
Another implication that these fossils have
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這些化石留了一個意涵
09:42
is for the archaeologists studying stone tools in South Africa.
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給研究南非石製工具的考古學家。
09:45
Keep in mind that neither the Dinaledi nor the Lesedi Chambers
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別忘了,在迧納萊迪 或雷沙迪洞穴中,
09:49
have any artifacts in them.
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都沒有任何文物。
09:51
However, they do overlap in time with several stone-tool industries,
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然而,他們所屬的時代和數個 石製工具產業的時代是重疊的,
09:56
the makers of which are considered to be either modern humans
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那些工具的製造者被認為是現代人
09:59
or direct human ancestors.
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或是人類的直屬祖先。
10:02
This begs the question:
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這就帶出了一個問題:
10:04
Who made the stone tools of South Africa?
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南非的石製工具是誰做的?
10:07
Brain size has historically played a key role
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在歷史上,大腦的大小 扮演著關鍵角色,
10:09
in identifying a species as a tool user.
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用來辨識物種是否 為工具的使用者。
10:12
The idea is that you need to have a large brain
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想法是,你必須要有夠大的大腦,
10:14
to have even the capacity to make stone tools.
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才有可能有能力做出石製工具。
10:17
But that notion has been questioned.
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但,這個概念已經被質疑了。
10:19
Furthermore, Homo naledi, even with its small brain size,
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此外,即使納萊迪人的大腦很小,
10:22
has a hand-wrist morphology similar to other species
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他們的手腕形態學和其他
會製做和使用 石製工具的物種很相似,
10:25
that did make and use stone tools,
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10:28
suggesting it had the capability.
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意味著他們有這種能力。
10:31
With two species coexisting in Africa at 300,000 years,
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三十萬年前, 兩個物種在非洲共存,
10:35
we can no longer assume we know the maker of tools
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在沒有找到物種的工具發掘地點,
10:38
at sites with no associated species.
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我們無法再假設 我們知道工具是誰製造的。
10:43
So where does Homo naledi fit in our human evolutionary lineage?
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所以,納萊迪人應該放在 人類演化世系中的哪裡?
10:47
Who is it most closely related to?
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他們和誰的關聯最近?
10:49
Who did it evolve from?
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他們是從何演化來的?
10:51
We're still trying to figure all that out.
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我們還在尋找這些答案。
10:53
It's ironic, because paleoanthropologists are renowned
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很諷刺,因為古人類學家
以使用小樣本聞名。
10:56
for having small sample sizes.
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10:58
We now have a large sample size,
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我們現在有了很大的樣本,
11:00
and more questions than answers.
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問題卻比答案還多。
11:02
Homo naledi has taught us,
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納萊迪人教了我們很多,
11:04
has brought us a little bit closer
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讓我們更進一步
11:06
to better understanding our evolutionary past.
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了解我們的演化過往。
11:10
So while Mrs. Ples will always hold a special place in my heart,
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所以,雖然普雷斯太太在我心中 一直佔有一個很特別的位置,
11:14
she now shares that space with several thousand others.
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現在她得要把那個位置 和其他數千人共享了。
11:16
(Laughter)
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(笑聲)
11:18
Thank you.
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謝謝。
11:19
(Applause)
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(掌聲)
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