This deep-sea mystery is changing our understanding of life | Karen Lloyd

1,540,788 views ・ 2018-02-28

TED


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譯者: Lilian Chiu 審譯者: Yuning912 陳又寧
00:13
I'm an ocean microbiologist at the University of Tennessee,
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我是田納西大學的海洋微生物學家,
00:16
and I want to tell you guys about some microbes
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我想和各位談的是一些微生物,
00:19
that are so strange and wonderful
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它們很奇特且美妙,
00:22
that they're challenging our assumptions about what life is like on Earth.
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它們甚至在挑戰我們對於 地球上生命的相關假設。
00:26
So I have a question.
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問大家一個問題。
00:27
Please raise your hand if you've ever thought it would be cool
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若你曾想過搭潛水艇到海底深處
00:30
to go to the bottom of the ocean in a submarine?
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是一件很酷的事,請舉手。
00:34
Yes.
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好。
00:35
Most of you, because the oceans are so cool.
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大部分人都舉手,因為海洋很酷。
00:37
Alright, now -- please raise your hand
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好,現在請再次舉手,
00:40
if the reason you raised your hand to go to the bottom of the ocean
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若你想要去海底的理由是因為
00:44
is because it would get you a little bit closer
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那樣你就能稍微更接近
00:46
to that exciting mud that's down there.
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海洋底部那令人興奮的泥巴。
00:49
(Laughter)
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(笑聲)
00:50
Nobody.
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沒有人舉手。
00:51
I'm the only one in this room.
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我是在場唯一的一個。
00:53
Well, I think about this all the time.
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其實,我常常在想這件事。
00:55
I spend most of my waking hours
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我大部分醒著的時間,
00:57
trying to determine how deep we can go into the Earth
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都在研究,我們能 潛入地球多深的地方,
01:01
and still find something, anything, that's alive,
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還能發現生物,發現任何生命體。
01:05
because we still don't know the answer to this very basic question
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這是個關於地球上生命的基本問題,
但我們仍然不知道答案。
01:08
about life on Earth.
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01:09
So in the 1980s, a scientist named John Parkes, in the UK,
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在 1980 年代,有一個英國 科學家叫做約翰帕克斯,
01:13
was similarly obsessed,
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和我有類似的著迷,
01:15
and he came up with a crazy idea.
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他想出了一個瘋狂的點子。
01:17
He believed that there was a vast, deep, and living microbial biosphere
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他相信,有一個巨大、深層, 且活生生的微生物圈,
01:23
underneath all the world's oceans
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在全世界海洋的底下,
01:25
that extends hundreds of meters into the seafloor,
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深入海底數百公尺。
01:27
which is cool,
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這想法很酷,
01:28
but the only problem is that nobody believed him,
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唯一的問題是,沒有人相信他,
01:32
and the reason that nobody believed him
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而沒有人相信他的原因,
01:34
is that ocean sediments may be the most boring place on Earth.
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是因為海洋沉積可能是 地球上最無聊的地方了。
01:39
(Laughter)
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(笑聲)
01:40
There's no sunlight, there's no oxygen,
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那裡沒有陽光、沒有氧氣,
01:43
and perhaps worst of all,
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最糟糕的可能是
01:44
there's no fresh food deliveries for literally millions of years.
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數百萬年來那裡沒有新鮮食物外送。
01:49
You don't have to have a PhD in biology
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你不用有生物學博士學位,
01:50
to know that that is a bad place to go looking for life.
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也能知道如果要尋找生命, 那地方不是個好選擇。
01:53
(Laughter)
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(笑聲)
01:54
But in 2002, [Steven D'Hondt] had convinced enough people
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但在 2002 年, 約翰說服了足夠的人,
01:57
that he was on to something that he actually got an expedition
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相信他可能會有所發現,
讓他真的搭上「聯合果敢號」 這艘鑽探船展開考察。
02:01
on this drillship, called the JOIDES Resolution.
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02:05
And he ran it along with Bo Barker Jørgensen of Denmark.
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與他同行的是丹麥的波巴克尤根森。
02:08
And so they were finally able to get
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終於,他們得以取得
02:09
good pristine deep subsurface samples
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地表下的深層優質原始樣本,
02:13
some really without contamination from surface microbes.
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沒有受到表面微生物的污染。
02:16
This drill ship is capable of drilling thousands of meters underneath the ocean,
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這艘鑽探船能夠鑽到 海底下數千公尺的深度,
02:21
and the mud comes up in sequential cores, one after the other --
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而泥土核依序從芯管被取出來,
02:24
long, long cores that look like this.
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像這樣非常長的芯管。
02:27
This is being carried by scientists such as myself who go on these ships,
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登船拿著芯管的科學家們,包括我,
02:31
and we process the cores on the ships and then we send them home
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我們會在船上處理泥土核, 然後把它們送回去
02:34
to our home laboratories for further study.
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家鄉的實驗室做進一步研究。
02:36
So when John and his colleagues
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所以當約翰和他的同事
02:38
got these first precious deep-sea pristine samples,
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拿到第一批珍貴的深海原始樣本,
02:41
they put them under the microscope,
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他們把樣本放到顯微鏡下,
02:43
and they saw images that looked pretty much like this,
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他們看到的影像就像是這樣,
02:47
which is actually taken from a more recent expedition
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這張圖其實是來自 更近期的一次考察,
02:50
by my PhD student, Joy Buongiorno.
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由我的博士生喬依邦吉歐諾進行的。
02:52
You can see the hazy stuff in the background.
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你們可以看到背景有模糊的東西。
02:54
That's mud. That's deep-sea ocean mud,
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那就是泥土,深海的泥土;
02:57
and the bright green dots stained with the green fluorescent dye
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而帶著綠色螢光的亮綠點
03:01
are real, living microbes.
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是真正的活微生物。
03:05
Now I've got to tell you something really tragic about microbes.
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我要告訴各位一件 關於微生物的悲劇。
03:08
They all look the same under a microscope,
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在顯微鏡下,它們看起來都一樣,
03:10
I mean, to a first approximation.
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至少大致上是一樣的。
03:11
You can take the most fascinating organisms in the world,
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你可以拿世界上最炫的有機體,
03:15
like a microbe that literally breathes uranium,
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比如能呼吸鈾的微生物,
03:19
and another one that makes rocket fuel,
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再找個製造火箭燃料的微生物,
03:21
mix them up with some ocean mud,
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把它們和一些海洋泥土混合,
03:23
put them underneath a microscope,
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放到顯微鏡下,
03:25
and they're just little dots.
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看到的就只是小點點。
03:27
It's really annoying.
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這真的很惱人。
03:28
So we can't use their looks to tell them apart.
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所以我們無法從 它們的外觀來區分它們。
03:31
We have to use DNA, like a fingerprint,
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我們得用 DNA,就像指紋,
03:33
to say who is who.
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來判斷誰是誰。
03:35
And I'll teach you guys how to do it right now.
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我現在就可以教各位怎麼做。
03:37
So I made up some data, and I'm going to show you some data that are not real.
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我捏造了一些資料, 等一下看的到資料不是真實的。
03:41
This is to illustrate what it would look like
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這是用來說明,如果一些物種
03:43
if a bunch of species were not related to each other at all.
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彼此之間完全沒有關係, 看起來會是什麼樣子。
03:47
So you can see each species
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所以,你們可以看到,每個物種
03:50
has a list of combinations of A, G, C and T,
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都能列出其 A、G、C、T 的組合,
03:55
which are the four sub-units of DNA,
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它們是 DNA 的四個子單位,
03:56
sort of randomly jumbled, and nothing looks like anything else,
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有點算是隨機混雜在一起, 看起來都不一樣,
04:00
and these species are totally unrelated to each other.
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這些物種彼此之間完全沒關聯。
04:03
But this is what real DNA looks like,
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但真正的 DNA 看起來是這樣的,
04:05
from a gene that these species happen to share.
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來自那些物種剛好共有的基因。
04:08
Everything lines up nearly perfectly.
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一切的排列幾乎完美。
04:11
The chances of getting so many of those vertical columns
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要有這麼多直行的機率,
04:14
where every species has a C or every species has a T,
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對有個 C 的每種物種, 或有個 T 的每種物種,
04:18
by random chance, are infinitesimal.
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在隨機的狀況下,是無限小的。
04:21
So we know that all those species had to have had a common ancestor.
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所以我們知道,所有這些 物種一定有個共同的祖先。
04:26
They're all relatives of each other.
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它們彼此都是親戚。
04:28
So now I'll tell you who they are.
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現在,我要告訴各位它們是誰。
04:30
The top two are us and chimpanzees,
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前兩種,是人類以及黑猩猩,
04:32
which y'all already knew were related, because, I mean, obviously.
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你們都知道兩者有關聯, 因為…應該很明顯吧。
04:36
(Laughter)
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(笑聲)
04:38
But we're also related to things that we don't look like,
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但我們也和外表 不相似的物種有關聯。
04:40
like pine trees and Giardia, which is that gastrointestinal disease
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比如松樹和賈第鞭毛蟲, 它就是如果你去健行時若喝下
04:45
you can get if you don't filter your water while you're hiking.
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未過濾的水,就會 得到的那種胃腸病。
04:48
We're also related to bacteria like E. coli and Clostridium difficile,
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我們也和細菌有關,比如 大腸桿菌和艱難梭狀芽孢杆菌,
04:53
which is a horrible, opportunistic pathogen that kills lots of people.
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它是種會趁虛而入的 恐怖病原體,很致命。
04:56
But there's of course good microbes too, like Dehalococcoides ethenogenes,
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當然,也有好的微生物, 像是當脫氯菌,
05:01
which cleans up our industrial waste for us.
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它能幫我們清除工業廢物。
05:03
So if I take these DNA sequences,
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如果我拿這些 DNA 序列,
05:06
and then I use them, the similarities and differences between them,
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然後使用它們,用它們 之間的相似和差異,
05:09
to make a family tree for all of us
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來為大家做個家譜樹狀圖,
05:11
so you can see who is closely related,
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可以清楚看見相近的關聯性,
05:13
then this is what it looks like.
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結果就會像這樣子。
05:15
So you can see clearly, at a glance,
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你第一眼就可以清楚看到,
05:17
that things like us and Giardia and bunnies and pine trees
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我們、賈第鞭毛蟲、 兔子,以及松樹等等,
05:23
are all, like, siblings,
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都像是手足,
05:25
and then the bacteria are like our ancient cousins.
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而細菌則是我們古老的表親。
05:28
But we're kin to every living thing on Earth.
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但我們和地球上的 所有生物都是親戚。
05:32
So in my job, on a daily basis,
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所以,我每天的工作,
05:34
I get to produce scientific evidence against existential loneliness.
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就是要製造出科學證據 來駁斥存在性的孤獨。
05:39
So when we got these first DNA sequences,
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所以當我們拿到第一批 DNA 序列,
05:42
from the first cruise, of pristine samples from the deep subsurface,
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來自第一次航行時從地表下 很深的地方取得的原始樣本,
05:46
we wanted to know where they were.
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我們想要知道它們之前在哪裡。
05:48
So the first thing that we discovered is that they were not aliens,
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所以,我們最先的發現的是: 它們不是外星人,
05:51
because we could get their DNA to line up with everything else on Earth.
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因為我們能將它們的 DNA 和地球上所有其他物種排列對齊。
05:54
But now check out where they go on our tree of life.
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但,現在看看它們在 我們的生命之樹上的走向。
05:59
The first thing you'll notice is that there's a lot of them.
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你最先會注意到的, 是它們的數量很多。
06:02
It wasn't just one little species
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並不只有一個小物種
06:04
that managed to live in this horrible place.
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能夠在這個糟透的地方生存。
06:06
It's kind of a lot of things.
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其實有很多東西。
06:08
And the second thing that you'll notice,
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你會注意到的第二件事,
06:10
hopefully, is that they're not like anything we've ever seen before.
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我希望你們注意到了,就是它們 和我們以前見過的物種都不一樣。
06:15
They are as different from each other
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它們彼此之間的差異程度,
06:17
as they are from anything that we've known before
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就如同它們和我們過去 所知之所有物種的差異程度,
06:20
as we are from pine trees.
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如同我們和松樹的差異。
06:22
So John Parkes was completely correct.
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所以,約翰帕克斯完全正確。
06:26
He, and we, had discovered a completely new and highly diverse
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他和我們發現地球上有個全新
極多樣化的微生物生態系統,
06:30
microbial ecosystem on Earth
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06:32
that no one even knew existed before the 1980s.
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在 1980 年代之前全然不為人知。
06:37
So now we were on a roll.
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我們現在好運連連。
06:38
The next step was to grow these exotic species in a petri dish
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下一步是要在培養皿中 繁殖這些奇特的物種,
06:43
so that we could do real experiments on them
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讓我們用來做真正的實驗,
06:45
like microbiologists are supposed to do.
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微生物學家應該做的那些實驗。
06:48
But no matter what we fed them,
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但,不論我們餵它們什麼,
06:49
they refused to grow.
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它們都不肯繁殖。
06:51
Even now, 15 years and many expeditions later,
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即使現在,十五年後, 且已經經過許多次考察,
06:55
no human has ever gotten a single one of these exotic deep subsurface microbes
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仍然沒有人能夠讓任何一種 從海底表下深處取得的微生物
07:01
to grow in a petri dish.
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在培養皿中成長。
07:02
And it's not for lack of trying.
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且那並非因為缺乏嘗試。
07:05
That may sound disappointing,
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這可能聽起來讓人失望,
07:07
but I actually find it exhilarating,
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但我卻覺得很振奮,
07:08
because it means there are so many tantalizing unknowns to work on.
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因為那表示有好多誘人的 未知事物等待研究。
07:12
Like, my colleagues and I got what we thought was a really great idea.
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比如,我和我同事 想出了一個很好的點子。
07:16
We were going to read their genes like a recipe book,
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我們要把它們的基因 當作烹飪書來讀,
07:19
find out what it was they wanted to eat and put it in their petri dishes,
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找出它們想要吃什麼, 把那東西放到培養皿中,
07:22
and then they would grow and be happy.
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接著它們就會快樂繁殖。
07:24
But when we looked at their genes,
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但我們去看它們的基因時,
07:26
it turns out that what they wanted to eat was the food we were already feeding them.
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發現它們想要吃的食物就是 我們之前餵食過的食物。
07:30
So that was a total wash.
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完全是白工一場。
07:32
There was something else that they wanted in their petri dishes
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在培養皿中,它們 還想要其他的東西,
07:35
that we were just not giving them.
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是我們還沒給它們的。
07:38
So by combining measurements from many different places
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所以,我們把來自世界上 不同地方的測量值結合起來,
07:41
around the world,
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07:43
my colleagues at the University of Southern California,
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我在南加州大學的同事,
07:46
Doug LaRowe and Jan Amend,
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道格拉洛和楊艾曼,
07:48
were able to calculate that each one of these deep-sea microbial cells
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可以計算出,每一個深海微生物細胞
07:53
requires only one zeptowatt of power,
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只需要 1 zepto 瓦的能量,
07:56
and before you get your phones out, a zepto is 10 to the minus 21,
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不用拿手機查了,1 zepto 就是10 的負 21 次方,
08:00
because I know I would want to look that up.
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換作我是你們,我也會想查。
08:02
Humans, on the other hand,
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另一方面,
08:04
require about 100 watts of power.
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人類需要 100 瓦的能量。
08:06
So 100 watts is basically if you take a pineapple
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基本上,100 瓦的 能量就是拿個鳳梨,
08:10
and drop it from about waist height to the ground 881,632 times a day.
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每天把它從腰部的高度 丟下去 881,632 次。
08:16
If you did that and then linked it up to a turbine,
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如果你那樣做,並和渦輪做連結,
08:19
that would create enough power to make me happen for a day.
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就會創造出足夠的 能量讓我能夠活一天。
08:23
A zeptowatt, if you put it in similar terms,
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如果用類似的方式 說明 1 zepto 瓦,
08:25
is if you take just one grain of salt
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就是拿一粒鹽巴,
08:30
and then you imagine a tiny, tiny, little ball
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接著,想像非常非常小的球狀體,
08:33
that is one thousandth of the mass of that one grain of salt
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質量只有一粒鹽巴的千分之一,
08:37
and then you drop it one nanometer,
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然後把它從一奈米的高度丟下,
08:40
which is a hundred times smaller than the wavelength of visible light,
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一奈米比可見光波長還要小一百倍,
08:44
once per day.
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一天丟一次。
08:46
That's all it takes to make these microbes live.
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只要這樣,就能讓微生物活著。
08:50
That's less energy than we ever thought would be capable of supporting life,
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我們從來沒有想過這麼少的 能量也能夠維持生命,
08:56
but somehow, amazingly, beautifully,
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但,不知以什麼方式, 很神奇,也很美妙,
08:59
it's enough.
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它就是足以維生。
09:01
So if these deep-subsurface microbes
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所以,如果這些深海微生物
09:03
have a very different relationship with energy than we previously thought,
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和能量之間的關係和 我們先前所想的很不一樣,
09:06
then it follows that they'll have to have
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那就表示,它們一定也會
09:08
a different relationship with time as well,
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和時間有不一樣的關係,
09:10
because when you live on such tiny energy gradients,
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因為當你生活中的 能量梯度那麼小的時候,
09:14
rapid growth is impossible.
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不可能會快速成長。
09:15
If these things wanted to colonize our throats and make us sick,
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如果這些東西想要在我們的 喉嚨中殖民,讓我們生病,
09:18
they would get muscled out by fast-growing streptococcus
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它們在開始做細胞分裂之前,
09:21
before they could even initiate cell division.
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就會被快速成長的鏈球菌趕出去了。
09:23
So that's why we never find them in our throats.
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那就是為何我們從未 在喉嚨中找到它們。
09:27
Perhaps the fact that the deep subsurface is so boring
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也許,雖然表面下的 深層地區很無聊,
09:31
is actually an asset to these microbes.
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對這些微生物而言卻是一項資產。
09:34
They never get washed out by a storm.
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它們永遠不會被暴風雨沖走。
09:36
They never get overgrown by weeds.
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不會被過分茂密的雜草給抑制。
09:39
All they have to do is exist.
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它們只需要做一件事:存在。
09:42
Maybe that thing that we were missing in our petri dishes
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也許,我們的培養皿中缺少的東西,
09:46
was not food at all.
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根本不是食物。
09:48
Maybe it wasn't a chemical.
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也許不是化學物質。
09:50
Maybe the thing that they really want,
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也許它們真正想要的東西,
09:51
the nutrient that they want, is time.
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它們想要的營養物,是時間。
09:56
But time is the one thing that I'll never be able to give them.
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但,時間是我永遠不可能 給予它們的東西。
09:59
So even if I have a cell culture that I pass to my PhD students,
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即使我把我的細胞培養 傳給我的博士生,
10:02
who pass it to their PhD students, and so on,
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他們再傳給他們的 博士生,以此類推,
10:05
we'd have to do that for thousands of years
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我們得要持續傳數千年,
10:08
in order to mimic the exact conditions of the deep subsurface,
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才有可能精確模仿 地面下深處的條件,
10:11
all without growing any contaminants.
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而不繁殖任何污染物。
10:13
It's just not possible.
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這是不可能的。
10:15
But maybe in a way we already have grown them in our petri dishes.
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但,也許,我們已經以某種方式 在培養皿中繁殖它們了。
10:18
Maybe they looked at all that food we offered them and said,
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也許它們看著我們 提供的各種食物,並說:
10:21
"Thanks, I'm going to speed up so much
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「謝謝,我能夠加速成長,
10:23
that I'm going to make a new cell next century.
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快到在下世紀就能做出一個新細胞。
10:25
Ugh.
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呃。
10:26
(Laughter)
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(笑聲)
10:28
So why is it that the rest of biology moves so fast?
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所以,為什麼其他的 生物都進行那麼快?
10:33
Why does a cell die after a day
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為什麼細胞在一天後就會死亡,
10:35
and a human dies after only a hundred years?
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一個人僅在一百年後就會死亡?
10:37
These seem like really arbitrarily short limits
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這些時限是非常短的,
10:40
when you think about the total amount of time in the universe.
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相對於宇宙的所有時間而言。
10:43
But these are not arbitrary limits.
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但它們並非隨意的時限。
10:45
They're dictated by one simple thing,
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它們受到一樣很單純的東西所支配,
10:48
and that thing is the Sun.
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那就是太陽。
10:51
Once life figured out how to harness the energy of the Sun
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一旦生命搞懂了要 如何透過光合作用利用
10:54
through photosynthesis,
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太陽的能量,
10:55
we all had to speed up and get on day and night cycles.
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我們都得要加速, 開始過日夜循環的日子。
10:58
In that way, the Sun gave us both a reason to be fast
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就這方面來說,太陽 給了我們加速的理由,
11:02
and the fuel to do it.
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以及加速需要的燃料。
11:03
You can view most of life on Earth like a circulatory system,
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你可以把地球上大部分的 生命視為是循環系統,
11:06
and the Sun is our beating heart.
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而太陽就是在跳動的心臟。
11:09
But the deep subsurface is like a circulatory system
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但在地表下的深處,這個循環系統
11:11
that's completely disconnected from the Sun.
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完全和太陽沒有連結。
11:14
It's instead being driven by long, slow geological rhythms.
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取而代之,驅動它的 是又長又慢的地理節奏。
11:19
There's currently no theoretical limit on the lifespan of one single cell.
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目前,在理論上,單一細胞的 壽命長度是沒有極限的。
11:26
As long as there is at least a tiny energy gradient to exploit,
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只要還有一絲絲的能量可以利用,
11:30
theoretically, a single cell could live
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在理論上,單一細胞就能
11:32
for hundreds of thousands of years or more,
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再活數億年甚至更久,
11:34
simply by replacing broken parts over time.
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只要隨著時間把壞掉的 部分換掉即可。
11:38
To ask a microbe that lives like that to grow in our petri dishes
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要讓那樣子生活的微生物, 在我們的培養皿中成長,
11:42
is to ask them to adapt to our frenetic, Sun-centric, fast way of living,
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就等於是在要求它們適應我們
這種以太陽為中心 且快速瘋狂的生活方式,
11:47
and maybe they've got better things to do than that.
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也許它們有別的更想做的事。
11:50
(Laughter)
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(笑聲)
11:51
Imagine if we could figure out how they managed to do this.
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想像一下,如果我們能夠 研究出它們如何辦到的。
11:55
What if it involves some cool, ultra-stable compounds
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如果它們是利用某種 超穩定複合物,
11:58
that we could use to increase the shelf life
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而若我們能將之用於 生物醫學或工業產業
12:01
in biomedical or industrial applications?
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延長保存期限,這樣會如何呢?
12:03
Or maybe if we figure out the mechanism that they use
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或者,假若我們能找出 它們使用的超慢速成長機制,
12:06
to grow so extraordinarily slowly,
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12:09
we could mimic it in cancer cells and slow runaway cell division.
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我們就能仿照這機制 來減慢癌細胞的分裂速度。
12:13
I don't know.
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我不知道。
12:15
I mean, honestly, that is all speculation,
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老實說,這些都是猜測,
12:18
but the only thing I know for certain
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但我知道有一件事是肯定的,
12:20
is that there are a hundred billion billion billlion
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有 10 的 29 次方個 活生生的微生物細胞
12:24
living microbial cells
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12:26
underlying all the world's oceans.
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在全世界的海洋底下。
12:29
That's 200 times more than the total biomass of humans on this planet.
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那是地球上人類 生物質總量的兩百倍。
12:33
And those microbes have a fundamentally different relationship
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且那些微生物與時間及能量的關係,
12:37
with time and energy than we do.
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跟我們有本質上的不同。
12:39
What seems like a day to them
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對它們而言是一天的時間,
12:42
might be a thousand years to us.
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對我們而言可能就是一千年。
12:45
They don't care about the Sun,
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它們不在乎太陽,
12:47
and they don't care about growing fast,
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它們也不在乎要快速成長,
12:49
and they probably don't give a damn about my petri dishes ...
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很可能它們也不在乎我的培養皿。
12:52
(Laughter)
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(笑聲)
12:53
but if we can continue to find creative ways to study them,
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但,如果我們能繼續尋找 有創意的方式來研究它們,
12:57
then maybe we'll finally figure out what life, all of life, is like on Earth.
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也許最終我們會能了解 在地球上所有生命的樣貌。
13:04
Thank you.
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謝謝。
13:05
(Applause)
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(掌聲)
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