Is this the most valuable thing in the ocean? - David Biello

370,278 views ใƒป 2024-08-20

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: zeeva livshitz ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Ido Dekkers
00:07
In 1891, newspapers reported the story of James Bartley,
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ื‘ืฉื ืช 1891 ื“ื™ื•ื•ื—ื• ื”ืขื™ืชื•ื ื™ื ืขืœ ืกื™ืคื•ืจื• ืฉืœ ื’โ€™ื™ื™ืžืก ื‘ืจื˜ืœื™,
00:12
a whaler who was swallowed whole by his prey.
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ืฆื™ื™ื“ ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืชื ื™ื ืฉื ื‘ืœืข ื‘ืฉืœืžื•ืชื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื˜ืจืฃ ืฉืœื•.
00:16
Supposedly, Bartley spent as long as 36 hours in the belly of the beast
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ื›ื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœ, ื‘ืจื˜ืœื™ ื‘ื™ืœื” 36 ืฉืขื•ืช ื‘ื‘ื˜ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื™ื”
00:21
before his crew caught the whale and rescued their crewmate.
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ืœืคื ื™ ืฉืฆื•ื•ืชื• ืชืคืก ืืช ื”ืœื•ื•ื™ืชืŸ ื•ื—ื™ืœืฅ ืืช ื—ื‘ืจ ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื.
00:25
And this tale is far from unique.
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ื•ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื”ื–ื” ืจื—ื•ืง ืžืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™.
00:28
Various novels, myths, and religious texts depict figures swallowed at seaโ€”
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ืจื•ืžื ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื, ืžื™ืชื•ืกื™ื ื•ื˜ืงืกื˜ื™ื ื“ืชื™ื™ื ืžืชืืจื™ื ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉื ื‘ืœืขื• ื‘ื™ื -
00:34
with some even making a home for themselves
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ื•ื—ืœืงื ืืฃ ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืœืขืฆืžื ื‘ื™ืช
00:37
in the creaturesโ€™ cavernous mouths.
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ื‘ืคื™ื•ืช ื”ื—ืœื•ืœื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื.
00:40
Unfortunately, if someone actually were swallowed by a whale,
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ืœืžืจื‘ื” ื”ืฆืขืจ, ืื ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ื‘ืืžืช ื”ื™ื” ื ื‘ืœืข ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืœื•ื•ื™ืชืŸ,
00:45
they would likely be crushed.
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ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืœื”ื ื™ื— ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ื ืžื—ืฅ.
00:46
But if they somehow survived,
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื”ื ื™ืฉืจื“ื• ืื™ื›ืฉื”ื•,
00:49
they might have a chance to escape during their captorโ€™s bathroom break.
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ื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ ืฉื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ื ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ืœื”ื™ืžืœื˜ ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืคืกืงืช ื”ืฉื™ืจื•ืชื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื•ื˜ืฃ ืฉืœื”ื.
00:55
Whales frequently surface to take in air
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ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืชื ื™ื ืฆืฆื™ื ืœืขืชื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื— ื›ื“ื™ ืœืงื—ืช ืื•ื•ื™ืจ
00:58
and let out massive plumes of waste.
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ื•ืœืฉื—ืจืจ ื›ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืื“ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืคืกื•ืœืช.
01:02
And while swimming in this slurry might seem more disgusting
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ื•ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉืฉื—ื™ื™ื” ื‘ืชืจื—ื™ืฃ ื”ื–ื” ืขืฉื•ื™ื” ืœื”ื™ืจืื•ืช ืžื’ืขื™ืœื” ื™ื•ืชืจ
01:05
than living in these creatures,
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ืžืืฉืจ ืœื—ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
01:08
whale poop is much more desirable than it may seem.
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ืฆื•ืืช ืœื•ื•ื™ืชืŸ ืจืฆื•ื™ื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืžื” ืฉื ืจืื”.
01:12
In fact, it may be one of the most important substances in the oceanโ€”
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื–ื” ืขืฉื•ื™ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืื—ื“ ื”ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก
01:17
and the world.
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ื•ื‘ืขื•ืœื.
01:20
To understand why,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื“ื•ืข,
01:21
we need to look at some of the oceanโ€™s most ubiquitous organisms: phytoplankton.
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ืขืœื™ื ื• ืœื”ืกืชื›ืœ ืขืœ ื›ืžื” ืžื”ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื”ื ืคื•ืฆื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก: ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ.
01:27
These creatures survive off sunlight, carbon dioxide,
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ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ืืœื” ื—ื™ื™ื ืžืื•ืจ ืฉืžืฉ, ืคื—ืžืŸ ื“ื• ื—ืžืฆื ื™
01:31
and nutrients like phosphates, nitrogen, and iron.
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ื•ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ืžื–ื™ื ื™ื ื›ืžื• ืคื•ืกืคื˜ื™ื, ื—ื ืงืŸ ื•ื‘ืจื–ืœ.
01:36
And since the oceanโ€™s surface waters generally have an abundance
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ื•ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืœืžื™ ืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื— ืฉืœ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ื™ืฉ ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืฉืคืข
01:40
of these resources,
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ืฉืœ ืžืฉืื‘ื™ื ืืœื”,
01:41
phytoplankton are everywhere.
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ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ ื ืžืฆื ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื.
01:44
A single drop of seawater can contain thousands of these creatures
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ื˜ื™ืคื” ืื—ืช ืฉืœ ืžื™ ื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ื›ื™ืœ ืืœืคื™ ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ืืœื”
01:48
and phytoplankton blooms are large enough to be seen from space.
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ื•ืคืจื™ื—ืช ื”ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืžืกืคื™ืง ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื™ืจืื•ืช ืžื”ื—ืœืœ.
01:52
These phytoplankton then become food for countless microscopic grazers,
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ื”ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื” ื”ื•ืคืš ืœืžื–ื•ืŸ ืœืื™ื ืกืคื•ืจ ืื•ื›ืœื™ ืขืฉื‘ ืžื™ืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืคื™ื™ื,
01:58
including copepods and krill,
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ื›ื•ืœืœ ืงื•ืคื™ืคื•ื“ื™ื ื•ืงืจื™ืœืื™ื,
02:00
which in turn feed a huge swath of marine life.
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ืืฉืจ ื‘ืชื•ืจื ืžื–ื™ื ื™ื ืฉื•ืจื” ืขืฆื•ืžื” ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื™ื ื™ืžื™ื™ื.
02:04
In this way, these surface-dwellers are the base of a food chain
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ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื–ื”, ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื— ื”ืœืœื• ื”ื ื”ื‘ืกื™ืก ืœืฉืจืฉืจืช ืžื–ื•ืŸ
02:08
supporting countless marine life forms.
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ื”ืชื•ืžื›ืช ื‘ืื™ื ืกืคื•ืจ ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื—ื™ื™ื ื™ืžื™ื•ืช.
02:11
But when phytoplankton die, their bodies can sink far below the surface,
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืืฉืจ ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืช, ื’ื•ืคื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืฉืงื•ืข ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืชื—ืช ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื—,
02:17
taking with them the carbon and iron their living peers need to survive.
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ื•ืœืงื—ืช ืื™ืชื ืืช ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ ื•ื”ื‘ืจื–ืœ ืฉื—ื‘ืจื™ื”ื ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉืจื•ื“.
02:23
And this is where whales come in.
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ื•ื›ืืŸ ื ื›ื ืกื™ื ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืชื ื™ื.
02:26
Hunting at these depths,
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ื‘ืฆื™ื“ ื‘ืžืขืžืงื™ื ืืœื”,
02:27
whales consume huge amounts of these phytoplankton predators.
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ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืชื ื™ื ืฆื•ืจื›ื™ื ื›ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืขืฆื•ืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ื˜ื•ืจืคื™ ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ ืืœื”.
02:32
For example, species like the blue whale
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ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ืžื™ื ื™ื ื›ืžื• ื”ืœื•ื•ื™ืชืŸ ื”ื›ื—ื•ืœ
02:35
can consume up to 16 tons of krill every day,
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฆืจื•ืš ืขื“ 16 ื˜ื•ืŸ ืงืจื™ืœืื™ื ืžื“ื™ ื™ื•ื,
02:40
leading them to regularly surface and release a slick of feces red with iron.
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ืžื” ืฉืžื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืื•ืชื ืœืขืœื•ืช ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื— ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืงื‘ื•ืข ื•ืœืฉื—ืจืจ ืฆื•ืื” ื—ืœืงืœืงื” ืื“ื•ืžื” ืขื ื‘ืจื–ืœ.
02:47
Through this cycle,
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืžื—ื–ื•ืจ ื–ื”,
02:48
whales act as a living pump to bring iron from deeper waters back to the surface.
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ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืชื ื™ื ืคื•ืขืœื™ื ื›ืžืฉืื‘ื” ื—ื™ื” ืœื”ื—ื–ืจืช ื‘ืจื–ืœ ืžืžื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขืžื•ืงื™ื ืืœ ืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื—.
02:55
However, if we take whales out of the equationโ€”
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ืขื ื–ืืช, ืื ื ื•ืฆื™ื ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืชื ื™ื ืžื”ืžืฉื•ื•ืื” -
02:59
much as centuries of commercial whaling didโ€”
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ื›ืžื• ืฉืขืฉื• ืžืื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืฆื™ื“ ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืชื ื™ื ืžืกื—ืจื™ -
03:02
this natural system starts to break down.
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ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช ื”ื–ื• ืžืชื—ื™ืœื” ืœื”ืชืคืจืง.
03:05
Over enough time,
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ืœืื•ืจืš ื–ืžืŸ ืžืกืคื™ืง,
03:07
this broken cycle could lead to surface waters completely devoid of life
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ืžื—ื–ื•ืจ ืฉื‘ื•ืจ ื–ื” ืขืœื•ืœ ืœื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœืžื™ื ืขื™ืœื™ื™ื ื ื˜ื•ืœื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ
03:12
and similarly major problems for us land dwellers.
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ื•ืœื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื“ื•ืžื” ืขื‘ื•ืจื ื• ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ื”ื™ื‘ืฉื”.
03:16
Phytoplanktonโ€™s massive photosynthetic blooms
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ื”ืคืจื™ื—ื” ื”ืคื•ื˜ื•ืกื™ื ืชื˜ื™ืช ื”ืžืกื™ื‘ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ
03:19
produce as much as half of Earthโ€™s oxygen.
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ืžื™ื™ืฆืจืช ืขื“ ืžื—ืฆื™ืช ืžื”ื—ืžืฆืŸ ืฉืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
03:23
And in addition to taking in iron,
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ื•ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ืœืงืœื™ื˜ืช ื‘ืจื–ืœ,
03:25
phytoplankton helps sequester huge amounts of carbonโ€”
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ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ ืขื•ื–ืจ ืœืกืคื•ื’ ื›ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืื“ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืคื—ืžืŸ -
03:29
an element we need to extract from the air to address climate change.
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ื™ืกื•ื“ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื—ืœืฅ ืžื”ืื•ื•ื™ืจ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืขื ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ ืืงืœื™ื.
03:34
According to one report, phytoplankton are estimated to capture four times
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ืขืœ ืคื™ ื“ื™ื•ื•ื— ืื—ื“, ื”ื”ืขืจื›ื” ื”ื™ื ื›ื™ ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ ืœื•ื›ื“ ืคื™ ืืจื‘ืขื”
03:39
the amount of carbon contained in the plant life of the Amazon.
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ืžื›ืžื•ืช ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ ื”ื›ืœื•ืœื” ื‘ื—ื™ื™ ื”ืฆื•ืžื— ืฉืœ ื”ืืžื–ื•ื ืก.
03:44
From these calculations,
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ืžื—ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ืืœื”,
03:45
every 1% increase in phytoplankton population
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ื›ืœ ืขืœื™ื™ื” ืฉืœ 1% ื‘ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ืช ื”ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ
03:49
is the carbon capture equivalent of 2 billion fully grown trees
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ื”ื™ื ื”ืžืงื‘ื™ืœื” ืœืœื›ื™ื“ืช ื”ืคื—ืžืŸ ืฉืœ 2 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืขืฆื™ื ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืžืœื
03:54
springing into existence.
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ืžื‘ืฆื‘ืฆื™ื ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืงื™ื•ื.
03:57
While thereโ€™s still debate about exactly how much of this carbon
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ืืžื ื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื™ืฉ ื•ื™ื›ื•ื— ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื›ืžื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืžื”ืคื—ืžืŸ ื”ื–ื”
04:00
stays in the ocean long term,
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ื ืฉืืจ ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ืœื˜ื•ื•ื— ืืจื•ืš,
04:02
researchers are working to increase phytoplankton populations
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ื”ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืคื•ืขืœื™ื ืœื”ื’ื“ืœืช ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื•ืช ื”ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ
04:06
and bury as much carbon as possible.
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ื•ืœืงื‘ื•ืจ ื›ืžื” ืฉื™ื•ืชืจ ืคื—ืžืŸ.
04:10
Some groups are doing this simply by sprinkling iron in the ocean.
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ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžื•ืช ืขื•ืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืคื™ื–ื•ืจ ื‘ืจื–ืœ ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก.
04:14
However, this approach is much less impactful
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ืขื ื–ืืช, ื’ื™ืฉื” ื–ื• ืžืฉืคื™ืขื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ืคื—ื•ืช
04:17
than supporting the oceanโ€™s natural phytoplankton farmers.
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ืžืืฉืจ ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื‘ื—ื•ื•ืื™ ื”ืคื™ื˜ื•ืคืœื ืงื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก.
ืžื˜ืจื™ืฆืช ื”ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ื”ืžื–ื™ื ื™ื ื”ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ืช ืฉืœ ืฆื•ืืช ื”ืœื•ื•ื™ืชืŸ ื”ื™ื ืชื•ืฆืื” ืฉืœ ืืœืคื™ ืฉื ื•ืช
04:22
Whale poopโ€™s complex matrix of nutrients is the result of millennia of co-evolution
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04:28
among these creatures,
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ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื” ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ืืœื”,
04:29
making it vastly superior to cheap, man-made supplements.
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ืฉื”ื ื ืขืœื™ื ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืชื•ืกืคื™ ืžื–ื•ืŸ ื–ื•ืœื™ื ืžืขืฉื” ื™ื“ื™ ืื“ื.
04:34
Right now, whale populations are still recovering from industrial whaling.
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ื ื›ื•ืŸ ืœืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื•ืช ื”ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืชื ื™ื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืžืชืื•ืฉืฉื•ืช ืžืฆื™ื“ ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืชื ื™ื ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืชื™.
04:39
But if we can help these species rebound through whaling moratoriums,
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืขื–ื•ืจ ืœืžื™ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืœื”ืชืื•ืฉืฉ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืžื•ืจื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ื ืฆื™ื“ ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืชื ื™ื,
04:43
safer fishing and shipping practices, and cleaning up pollution,
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ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ื“ื™ื’ ื•ืฉื™ืœื•ื— ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื ื™ืงื•ื™ ื–ื™ื”ื•ื,
04:48
it would do wonders for restoring this nutrient cycle.
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ื–ื” ื™ืขืฉื” ืคืœืื™ื ืœืฉื™ืงื•ื ื”ืžื—ื–ื•ืจ ื”ืชื–ื•ื ืชื™ ื”ื–ื”.
04:51
And even when these newly protected whales die natural deaths,
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ื•ื’ื ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืชื ื™ื ื”ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ื”ืžื•ื’ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื™ืžื•ืชื• ืžื•ื•ืช ื˜ื‘ืขื™,
04:55
they'll still be fighting climate change.
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ื”ื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื™ื™ืœื—ืžื• ื‘ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ ื”ืืงืœื™ื.
04:58
Not only can a whaleโ€™s body sequester up to 33 tons of carbon
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ืœื ืจืง ืฉื’ื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ืœื•ื•ื™ืชืŸ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืกืคื•ื’ ืขื“ 33 ื˜ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืคื—ืžืŸ
05:02
at the bottom of the ocean,
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ื‘ืชื—ืชื™ืช ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก,
05:04
but their remains can also become an entire ecosystemโ€”
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ืืœื ืฉืจื™ื“ื™ื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ื’ื ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืœืžืขืจื›ืช ืืงื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ืฉืœืžื” -
05:08
continuing to support life both above and below the surface.
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ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš ืœืชืžื•ืš ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื ืžืขืœ ื•ืžืชื—ืช ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื—.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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