From DNA to Silly Putty: The diverse world of polymers - Jan Mattingly

357,346 views ใƒป 2013-12-10

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Ido Dekkers ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Boaz Hovav
00:06
What do silk,
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ืžื” ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ ืœืžืฉื™,
00:08
DNA,
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00:08
wood,
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DNA,
ืขืฅ,
00:09
balloons,
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ื‘ืœื•ื ื™ื,
00:10
and Silly Putty all have in common?
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ื•ื‘ืฆืง ืžืฉื—ืง?
00:12
They're polymers.
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ื”ื ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจื™ื.
00:14
Polymers are such a big part of our lives
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ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจื™ื ื”ื ื—ืœืง ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื ื•
00:17
that it's virtually impossible
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ืฉื–ื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื‘ืœืชื™ ืืคืฉืจื™
00:18
to imagine a world without them,
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ืœื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ ืขื•ืœื ื‘ืœืขื“ื™ื”ื,
00:20
but what the heck are they?
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ืื‘ืœ ืžื” ื”ื ื‘ื›ืœืœ?
00:22
Polymers are large molecules
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ืคื•ืœืžืจื™ื ื”ื ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช
00:24
made of small units called monomers
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ืฉืขืฉื•ื™ื•ืช ืžื™ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื•ืช ืฉื ืงืจืื•ืช ืžื•ื ื•ืžืจื™ื
00:26
linked together like the railroad cars from a train.
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ืฉืžื—ื•ื‘ืจื™ื ื™ื—ื“ ื›ืžื• ืงืจื•ื ื•ืช ืจื›ื‘ืช.
00:29
Poly means many,
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ืคื•ืœื™ ืื•ืžืจ ื”ืจื‘ื”,
00:31
and mono means one,
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ื•ืžื•ื ื• ืื•ืžืจ ืื—ื“,
00:32
and mers or mero means parts.
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ื•ืžืจื™ื ืื• ืžืจื• ืื•ืžืจ ื—ืœืงื™ื.
00:35
Many polymers are made by repeating
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจื™ื ืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื—ื–ืจื”
00:37
the same small monomer over and over again
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ืขืœ ืื•ืชื• ืžื•ื ื•ืžืจ ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ืฉื•ื‘
00:40
while others are made from two monomers
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืื—ืจื™ื ืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื ืžืฉื ื™ ืžื•ื ื•ืžืจื™ื
00:42
linked in a pattern.
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ืžื—ื•ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ืชื‘ื ื™ืช ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžืช.
00:44
All living things are made of polymers.
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ื›ืœ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจื™ื.
00:46
Some of the organic molecules in organisms
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ื›ืžื” ืžื”ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ื™ื
00:49
are small and simple,
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ื”ืŸ ืคืฉื•ื˜ื•ืช ื•ืงื˜ื ื•ืช,
00:50
having only one of a few functional groups.
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ื•ื™ืฉ ื‘ื”ืŸ ืจืง ืื—ืช ืžื›ืžื” ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช.
00:54
Others, especially those that play structural roles
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ืื—ืจื•ืช, ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืืœื” ืฉืžืฉื—ืงื•ืช ืชืคืงื™ื“ ืžื‘ื ื™
00:57
or store genetic information,
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ืื• ืื•ื’ืจื•ืช ืžื™ื“ืข ื’ื ื˜ื™,
00:59
are macromolecules.
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ื”ืŸ ืžืงืจื• ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช (ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช).
01:00
In many cases, these macromolecules are polymers.
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ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืงืจื™ื, ื”ืžืงืจื• ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืืœื” ื”ืŸ ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจื™ื.
01:04
For example, complex carbohydrates
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ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ืคื—ืžื™ืžื•ืช ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื•ืช
01:06
are polymers of simple sugars,
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ื”ืŸ ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืกื•ื›ืจื™ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ื™ื,
01:08
proteins are polymers of amino acids,
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ื—ืœื‘ื•ื ื™ื ื”ื ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืžืฆื•ืช ืืžื™ื ื•,
01:11
and nucleic acids, DNA and RNA,
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ื•ื—ื•ืžืฆื•ืช ื’ืœืขื™ืŸ, DNA ื•- RNA,
01:13
which contain our genetic information,
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ืฉืžื›ื™ืœื•ืช ืืช ื”ืžื™ื“ืข ื”ื’ื ื˜ื™ ืฉืœื ื•,
01:15
are polymers of nucleotides.
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ื”ืŸ ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื ื•ืงืœืื•ื˜ื™ื“ื™ื.
01:18
Trees and plants are made
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ืขืฆื™ื ื•ืฆืžื—ื™ื ืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื
01:19
of the polymer cellulose.
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ืžื”ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจ ืฆืœื•ืœื•ื–.
01:21
It's the tough stuff you find in bark and stems.
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ื–ื” ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืงืฉื™ื— ืฉืืชื ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ื‘ืงืœื™ืคื” ืื• ื’ื‘ืขื•ืœื™ื.
01:24
Feathers,
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ื ื•ืฆื•ืช,
01:25
fur,
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01:25
hair,
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ืคืจื•ื•ื”,
ืฉื™ืขืจ,
01:26
and fingernails
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ื•ืฆื™ืคื•ืจื ื™ื™ื
01:27
are made up of the protein keratin,
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ืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื ืžื”ื—ืœื‘ื•ืŸ ืงืจื˜ื™ืŸ,
01:29
also a polymer.
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ืฉื’ื ื”ื•ื ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจ.
01:30
It doesn't stop there.
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ื–ื” ืœื ืขื•ืฆืจ ืคื”.
01:32
Did you know that the exoskeletons
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ื™ื“ืขืชื ืฉื”ืฉืœื“ ื”ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™
01:33
of the largest phylum in the animal kingdom,
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ืฉืœ ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ืžืžืœื›ืช ื”ื˜ื‘ืข,
01:36
the arthropods,
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ืžืฉืคื—ืช ืคืจื•ืงื™ ื”ืจื’ืœื™ื™ื,
01:37
are made of the polymer chitin?
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ืขืฉื•ื™ ืžื”ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจ ื›ื™ื˜ื™ืŸ?
01:39
Polymers also form the basis
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ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจื™ื ื’ื ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืืช ื”ื‘ืกื™ืก
01:41
for synthetic fibers, rubbers, and plastics.
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ืœืกื™ื‘ื™ื ืกื™ื ื˜ื˜ื™ื™ื, ื’ื•ืžื™, ื•ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง.
01:44
All synthetic polymers are derived from petroleum oil
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ื›ืœ ื”ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจื™ื ื”ืกื™ื ื˜ื˜ื™ื™ื ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืžื ืคื˜
01:48
and manufactured through chemical reactions.
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ื•ืžื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื“ืจืš ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื›ื™ืžื™ื•ืช.
01:51
The two most common types of reactions
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ืฉืชื™ื™ื ืžื”ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื›ื™ ื ืคื•ืฆื•ืช
01:53
used to make polymers
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ืฉืžืฉืžื•ืช ืœื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจื™ื
01:54
are addition reactions
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ื”ืŸ ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื•ืกืคื”
01:55
and condensation reactions.
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ื•ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืชืขื‘ื•ืช.
01:58
In addition reactions,
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ื‘ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื•ืกืคื”,
01:59
monomers simply add together to form the polymer.
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ืžื•ื ื•ืžืจื™ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืžื•ืกืคื™ื ื™ื—ื“ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจ.
02:02
The process starts with a free radical,
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ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ืžืชื—ื™ืœ ืขื ืจื“ื™ืงืœ ื—ื•ืคืฉื™,
02:04
a species with an unpaired electron.
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ืžื™ืŸ ื ื˜ื•ืœ ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ืŸ.
02:07
The free radical attacks
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ื”ืจื“ื™ืงืœ ื”ื—ื•ืคืฉื™ ืชื•ืงืฃ
02:08
and breaks the bonds to form new bonds.
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ื•ืฉื•ื‘ืจ ืืช ื”ืงืฉืจื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืงืฉืจื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื.
02:11
This process repeats over and over
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ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื–ื” ื—ื•ื–ืจ ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ืฉื•ื‘
02:13
to create a long-chained polymer.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจื™ื ืžืฉื•ืจืฉืจื™ื ืืจื•ื›ื™ื.
02:15
In condensation reactions,
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ื‘ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืช ืขื™ื‘ื•ื™,
02:17
a small molecule, such as water,
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ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœื” ืงื˜ื ื”, ื›ืžื• ืžื™ื,
02:19
is produced with each chain-extending reaction.
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ื ื•ืฆืจืช ืขื ื›ืœ ืชื’ื•ื‘ืจื” ืžืืจื™ื›ืช ืฉืจืฉืจืช.
02:22
The first synthetic polymers
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ื”ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจื™ื ื”ืกื™ื ื˜ื˜ื™ื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื
02:23
were created by accident
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ื ื•ืฆืจื• ื‘ื˜ืขื•ืช
02:25
as by-products of various chemical reactions.
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ื›ืชื•ืฆืจ ืœื•ื•ืื™ ืฉืœ ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื›ื™ืžื™ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช.
02:28
Thinking they were useless,
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ื›ืฉื—ืฉื‘ื• ืฉื”ืŸ ื—ืกืจื•ืช ืชื•ืขืœื•ืช,
02:29
chemists mostly discarded them.
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ื”ื›ื™ืžืื™ื ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื”ืฉืœื™ื›ื• ืื•ืชืŸ.
02:31
Finally, one named Leo Baekeland
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ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ, ืื“ื ื‘ืฉื ืœื™ืื• ื‘ื™ืงืœื ื“
02:33
decided maybe his useless by-product
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ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืฉืื•ืœื™ ืชื•ืฆืจ ื”ืœื•ื•ืื™ ืฉืœื• ื—ืกืจ ื”ืชื•ืขืœืช
02:35
wasn't so useless after all.
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ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื—ืกืจ ืชื•ืขืœืช ืื—ืจื™ ื”ื›ืœ.
02:38
His work resulted in a plastic
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ืชื•ืฆืืช ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืฉืœื• ื”ื™ืชื” ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง
02:39
that could be permanently squished into a shape
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื“ื—ืก ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืงื‘ื•ืข ืœืฆื•ืจื”
02:42
using pressure and high temperatures.
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืœื—ืฅ ื•ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื”.
02:44
Since the name of this plastic,
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ืžืื—ืจ ื•ื”ืฉื ืฉืœ ื”ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง ื”ื–ื”,
02:46
polyoxybenzylmethylenglycolanhydride,
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ืคื•ืœื™ืื•ืงืกื™ื‘ื ื–ื™ืœืžืชื™ืœืื ื’ืœื™ื›ื•ืœื ื”ื™ื“ืจื™ื“,
02:50
wasn't very catchy,
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ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžืžืฉ ืงืœื™ื˜,
02:51
advertisers called it Bakelite.
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ืื ืฉื™ื ืงืจืื• ืœื• ื‘ืงืœื™ื˜.
02:54
Bakelite was made into telephones,
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ืžื‘ืงืœื™ื˜ ื™ืฆืจื• ื˜ืœืคื•ื ื™ื,
02:56
children's toys,
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ืฆืขืฆื•ืขื™ ื™ืœื“ื™ื,
02:57
and insulators for electrical devices.
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ื•ืžื‘ื•ื“ื“ื™ื ืœืžื›ืฉื™ืจื™ื ื—ืฉืžืœื™ื™ื.
02:59
With its development in 1907,
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ืขื ื”ืคื™ืชื•ื— ืฉืœื• ื‘-1907,
03:02
the plastics industry exploded.
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ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืช ื”ืคืกื˜ื™ืง ื”ืจืงื™ืขื” ืฉื—ืงื™ื.
03:04
One other familiar polymer, Silly Putty,
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ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจ ืžื•ื›ืจ ื ื•ืกืฃ, ืคืœืกื˜ืœื™ื ื”,
03:06
was also invented by accident.
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ื’ื ื”ื•ื ื”ื•ืžืฆื ื‘ื˜ืขื•ืช.
03:08
During World War II,
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืžืœื—ืžืช ืขื•ืœื ืฉื ื™ื™ื”,
03:09
the United States was in desperate need
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ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื ื•ืืฉืช
03:11
of synthetic rubber to support the military.
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ืœื’ื•ืžื™ ืกื™ื ื˜ื˜ื™ ื›ื“ื™ ืœืชืžื•ืš ื‘ืœื—ื™ืžื”.
03:14
A team of chemists at General Electric
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ืฆื•ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื›ื™ืžืื™ื ืžื’'ื ืจืœ ืืœืงื˜ืจื™ืง
03:16
attempted to create one
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ื ื™ืกื• ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืื—ื“
03:17
but ended up with a gooey, soft putty.
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฆื ืœื”ื ืขื™ืกื” ืจื›ื” ื•ื ืžืจื—ืช.
03:20
It wasn't a good rubber substitute,
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ื–ื” ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ืชื•ืจ ืชื—ืœื™ืฃ ืœื’ื•ืžื™,
03:22
but it did have one strange quality:
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื™ืชื” ืœื” ืชื›ื•ื ื” ืื—ืช ืžื•ื–ืจื”:
03:24
it appeared to be extremely bouncy.
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ื ืจืื” ืฉื”ื™ื ืžืžืฉ ืงื•ืคืฆื ื™ืช.
03:27
Silly Putty was born!
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ืคืœืกื˜ืœื™ื ื” ื ื•ืœื“ื”!
03:28
Synthetic polymers have changed the world.
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ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจื™ื ืกื™ื ื˜ื™ื™ื ืฉื™ื ื• ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื.
03:30
Think about it.
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ื—ืฉื‘ื• ืขืœ ื–ื”.
03:32
Could you imagine getting through a single day
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ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ ื™ื•ื ืื—ื“
03:33
without using plastic?
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ื‘ืœื™ ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง?
03:35
But polymers aren't all good.
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ืื‘ืœ ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจื™ื ื”ื ืœื ืจืง ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื.
03:37
Styrofoam, for example, is made mainly of styrene,
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ืงืœืงืจ, ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ืขืฉื•ื™ ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืžืกื˜ื™ื™ืจื™ืŸ,
03:40
which has been identified as a possible carcinogen
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ืฉืžื–ื•ื”ื” ื›ื’ื•ืจื ืกืจื˜ืŸ ืืคืฉืจื™
03:43
by the Environmental Protection Agency.
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืกื•ื›ื ื•ืช ืœื”ื’ื ื” ืขืœ ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”.
03:45
As Styrofoam products are being made,
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ื›ืฉืžื•ืฆืจื™ ืงืœืงืจ ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื,
03:47
or as they slowly deteriorate in landfills or the ocean,
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ืื• ื›ืฉื”ื ืžืชืคืจืงื™ื ื‘ืื™ื˜ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืžื–ื‘ืœื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก,
03:51
they can release toxic styrene
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ื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฉื—ืจืจ ืกื˜ื™ื™ืจื™ืŸ ืจืขื™ืœ
03:52
into the environment.
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ืœืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”.
03:54
In addition, plastics that are created
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ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ, ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง ืฉื ื•ืฆืจ
03:56
by addition polymerization reactions,
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื•ืกืคื” ืฉืœ ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจื™ื,
03:58
like Styrofoam,
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ื›ืžื• ืงืœืงืจ,
03:59
plastic bags,
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ืฉืงื™ื•ืช ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง,
04:00
and PVC,
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ื•- PVC,
04:01
are built to be durable and food-safe,
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ื‘ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืขืžื™ื“ื™ื ื•ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื™ื ืœืื•ื›ืœ,
04:03
but that means that they don't break down
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืฉื”ื ืœื ืžืชืคืจืงื™ื
04:04
in the environment.
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ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”.
04:06
Millions of tons of plastics
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ืžืœื™ื•ื ื™ ื˜ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง
04:08
are dumped into landfills every year.
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ืžื•ืฉืœื›ื™ื ืœืžื–ื‘ืœื•ืช ื›ืœ ืฉื ื”.
04:10
This plastic doesn't biodegrade,
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ื”ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง ื”ื–ื” ืœื ืžืชืคืจืง ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช,
04:12
it just breaks down
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ื”ื•ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื ืฉื‘ืจ
04:13
into smaller and smaller pieces,
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ืœื—ืชื™ื›ื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ,
04:15
affecting marine life
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ืžื” ืฉืžืฉืคื™ืข ืขืœ ื—ื™ื™ื ื™ืžื™ื™ื
04:16
and eventually making their way back to humans.
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ื•ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ื—ื•ื–ืจื™ื ืœืื ืฉื™ื.
04:19
Polymers can be soft or hard,
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ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืจื›ื™ื ืื• ืงืฉื™ื,
04:21
squishy or solid,
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ืžืขื™ื›ื™ื ืื• ืžื•ืฆืงื™ื,
04:22
fragile or strong.
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ืฉื‘ื™ืจื™ื ืื• ื—ื–ืงื™ื.
04:25
The huge variation between
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ื”ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ืื“ื™ืจ ื‘ื™ื ื
04:27
means they can form
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ืื•ืžืจ ืฉื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ
04:28
an incredibly diverse array of substances,
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ืžืขืจืš ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื,
04:30
from DNA
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ืž- DNA
04:31
to nylon stockings.
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ืœื’ืจื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ ื ื™ื™ืœื•ืŸ.
04:33
Polymers are so useful
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ืคื•ืœื™ืžืจื™ื ื”ื ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื
04:35
that we've grown to depend on them every day.
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ืฉื ืคื›ื ื• ืœืชืœื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ื”ื ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ื•ื.
04:37
But some are littering
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืžื” ืžืœื›ืœื›ื™ื
04:38
our oceans, cities, and waterways
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ืืช ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื ืฉืœื ื•, ื”ืขืจื™ื, ื•ื“ืจื›ื™ ื”ืžื™ื.
04:41
with effects on our health
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ืขื ื”ืฉืคืขื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•
04:42
that we're only beginning to understand.
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืจืง ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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