The nurdles' quest for ocean domination - Kim Preshoff

323,321 views ใƒป 2014-08-04

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Ido Dekkers ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Tal Dekkers
00:06
Meet the nurdles.
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ืคื’ืฉื• ืืช ื”ื ืจื“ืœื™ื.
00:08
They may be tiny, look harmless, and sound like a bunch of cartoon characters,
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ื”ื ืื•ืœื™ ื–ืขื™ืจื™ื, ื ืจืื™ื ืœื ืžื–ื™ืงื™ื, ื•ื ืฉืžืขื™ื ื›ืžื• ื—ื‘ื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืžืฆื•ื™ื™ืจื•ืช,
00:12
but don't be fooled.
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ืื‘ืœ ืืœ ืชืชื‘ืœื‘ืœื•.
00:14
These little guys are plotting ocean domination.
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ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืžืชื›ื ื ื™ื ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ืขืœ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื.
00:17
Nurdles are some of the planet's most pervasive pollutants,
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ื ืจื“ืœื™ื ื”ื ืžื”ืžื–ื”ืžื™ื ื”ื›ื™ ืคื•ืœืฉื ื™ื™ื ื‘ืคืœื ื˜ื”,
00:21
found in lakes, rivers, and oceans across the globe.
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ื ืžืฆืื™ื ื‘ืื’ืžื™ื, ื ื”ืจื•ืช ื•ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ื•ืก.
00:25
The tiny factory-made pellets form the raw material
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ื”ื›ื“ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ื”ื–ืขื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืžื™ื•ืฆืจื•ืช ื‘ืžืคืขืœื™ื ืžื”ื•ื•ืช ืืช ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ื’ืœื
00:28
for every plastic product we use.
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ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื›ืœ ืžื•ืฆืจื™ ื”ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง ื‘ื”ื ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื.
00:31
And each year, billions of pounds of nurdles
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ื•ื›ืœ ืฉื ื”, ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ื™ ืงื™ืœื•ื’ืจืžื™ื ืฉืœ ื ืจื“ืœื™ื
00:33
are produced, melted, and molded
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ืžื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื, ืžื•ืชื›ื™ื, ืžืขื•ืฆื‘ื™ื
00:36
into toys, bottles, buttons, bags, pens, shoes, toothbrushes, and beads.
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ืœืฆืขืฆื•ืขื™ื, ื‘ืงื‘ื•ืงื™ื, ื‘ืœื•ื ื™ื, ืชื™ืงื™ื, ืขื˜ื™ื, ื ืขืœื™ื™ื, ืžื‘ืจืฉื•ืช ืฉื™ื ื™ื™ื ื•ื—ืจื•ื–ื™ื.
00:44
They are everywhere.
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ื”ื ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื.
00:46
And they come in many guises, multi-colored and many-shaped,
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ื•ื”ื ื‘ืื™ื ื‘ื›ืœ ืžื™ื ื™ ืคื ื™ื, ื”ืจื‘ื” ืฆื‘ืขื™ื ื•ื”ืžื•ืŸ ืฆื•ืจื•ืช.
00:50
they range in size from just a few millimeters to mere specks
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ื”ื ื ืขื™ื ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืžื›ืžื” ืžื™ืœื™ืžื˜ืจื™ื ืœื’ืจื’ืจื™ื ื–ืขื™ืจื™ื
00:54
that are only visible through a microscope.
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ืฉื ืจืื™ื ืœืขื™ืŸ ืจืง ื“ืจืš ืžื™ืงืจื•ืกืงื•ืค.
00:57
But their real advantage in the quest for ocean domination
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื™ืชืจื•ืŸ ื”ืืžื™ืชื™ ืฉืœื”ื ื‘ืžืกืข ืœืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ืขืœ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื
00:59
is their incredible endurance, which allows them to persist
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ื”ื•ื ื”ืขืžื™ื“ื•ืช ื”ืžืคืœื™ืื” ืฉืœื”ื, ืฉืžืืคืฉืจืช ืœื”ื ืœื”ืชืžื™ื“
01:03
in an environment for generations because their artificial makeup
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ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื‘ืžืฉืš ื“ื•ืจื•ืช ืžืคื ื™ ืฉื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ ืฉืœื”ื
01:07
makes them unable to biodegrade.
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ืžื•ื ืข ืžื”ื ืœื”ืชืคืจืง ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช.
01:10
So, just as long as they don't get into the environment,
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ืื–, ื›ืœ ืขื•ื“ ื”ื ืœื ื ื›ื ืกื™ื ืœืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”,
01:13
we have nothing to worry about, right?
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ืื™ืŸ ืœื ื• ืžืžื” ืœื“ืื•ื’, ื ื›ื•ืŸ?
01:15
The problem is nurdles have a crafty way of doing exactly this.
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ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื™ื ืฉืœื ืจื“ืœื™ื ื™ืฉ ื“ืจืš ืžืชื•ื—ื›ืžืช ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืืช ื–ื”.
01:19
Produced in several countries and shipped to plastic manufacturing plants
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ื”ื ืžื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื‘ืžืกืคืจ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื•ืžื•ื‘ืœื™ื ืœืžืคืขืœื™ ื™ืฆื•ืจ ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง
01:23
the world over, nurdles often escape
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ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื, ื”ื ืจื“ืœื™ื ื‘ื•ืจื—ื™ื ืœืคืขืžื™ื
01:26
during the production process, carried by runoff to the coast
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื™ืฆื•ืจ, ื ื™ืฉืื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื™ืคื•ืช ืœื—ื•ืฃ
01:30
or during shipping when they're mistakenly tipped into the waves.
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ืื• ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ื”ื•ื‘ืœื” ื›ืฉื‘ื˜ืขื•ืช ืžื˜ื™ื ืื•ืชื ืœืชื•ืš ื”ื’ืœื™ื.
01:34
Once in the water, nurdles are swiftly carried by currents,
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ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉื”ื ื‘ืžื™ื, ื ืจื“ืœื™ื ื ื™ืฉืื™ื ื‘ืžื”ืจื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื–ืจืžื™ื,
01:38
ultimately winding up in huge circulating ocean systems
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ื•ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ืืช ืขืฆืžื ื‘ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ืกื™ื‘ื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ืขืฆื•ืžื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื
01:42
called gyres, where they convene to plan their tactics.
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ืฉื ืงืจืื•ืช ื’'ื™ื™ืจื™ื, ืฉื ื”ื ืžืชืืกืคื™ื ืœืชื›ื ืŸ ืืช ื”ื˜ืงื˜ื™ืงื”.
01:45
The Earth has five gyres that act as gathering points,
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ืœื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉ ื—ืžื™ืฉื” ื’'ื™ื™ืจื™ื ืฉืคื•ืขืœื™ื ื›ื ืงื•ื“ื•ืช ืื™ืกื•ืฃ,
01:48
but the headquarters of nurdle ocean domination
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืžืคืงื“ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื ืจื“ืœื™ื ืœืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื
01:51
are in the Pacific Ocean, where the comparative enormity of the gyre
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ื”ื™ื ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ื”ืฉืงื˜, ืฉื ื”ื’ื•ื“ืœ ื”ืขืฆื•ื ืฉืœ ื”ื’'ื™ื™ืจื•
01:55
and the resulting concentration of pollution
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ื•ืจื™ื›ื•ื– ื”ื–ื™ื”ื•ื ื›ืชื•ืฆืื”
01:59
is so huge that it's known as The Great Pacific Garbage Patch.
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ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืฉื”ื•ื ื™ื“ื•ืข ื›ื›ืชื ื”ื–ื‘ืœ ื”ืคืกื™ืคื™ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ.
02:03
Here, nurdles have good company.
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ืคื”, ืœื ืจื“ืœื™ื ื™ืฉ ื—ื‘ืจื” ื˜ื•ื‘ื”.
02:05
This gyre draws in all kinds of pollution,
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ื”ื’'ื™ื™ืจื• ืžื•ืฉืš ื›ืœ ืžื™ื ื™ ืกื•ื’ื™ื ืฉืœ ื–ื™ื”ื•ื,
02:08
but because they don't biodegrade, plastics dominate,
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื”ื ืœื ืžืชืคืจืงื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช, ื”ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง ืฉื•ืœื˜,
02:11
and they come from other sources besides nurdles, too.
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ื•ื”ื ื‘ืื™ื ื’ื ืžืžืงื•ืจื•ืช ืื—ืจื™ื ื—ื•ืฅ ืžื ืจื“ืœื™ื.
02:15
You know those tiny beads you see in your face wash or your toothpaste?
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ืืชื ืžื›ื™ืจื™ื ืืช ื”ื—ืจื•ื–ื™ื ื”ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื ื‘ืกื‘ื•ืŸ ื”ืคื ื™ื ืฉืœื›ื ืื• ื‘ืžืฉื—ืช ื”ืฉื™ื ื™ื™ื?
02:18
They're often made of plastic, and after you flush them down the drain,
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ื”ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืคืขืžื™ื ืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื ืžืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง, ื•ืื—ืจื™ ืฉืืชื ืฉื•ื˜ืคื™ื ืื•ืชื ื‘ื‘ื™ื•ื‘,
02:22
some also end up in this giant garbage patch,
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ื—ืœืงื ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืœื›ืชื ื”ื–ื‘ืœ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ,
02:25
much to the delight of the nurdles, building up their plastic army there.
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ืœืฉืžื—ืชื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืฉืœ ื”ื ืจื“ืœื™ื, ืฉื‘ื•ื ื™ื ืืช ืฆื‘ื ื”ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง ืฉืœื”ื ืฉื.
02:29
And then there are the large pieces of unrecycled plastic litter,
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ื•ืื– ื™ืฉ ืืช ื”ืคื™ืกื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ืคืกื•ืœืช ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง ืœื ืžืžื•ื—ื–ืจ,
02:32
like bottles and carrier bags, transported by runoff from land to sea.
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ื›ืžื• ื‘ืงื‘ื•ืงื™ื ื•ืชื™ืงื™ ื ืฉื™ืื”, ืฉืžื•ืกืขื™ื ืœืฉื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื™ ืฉื˜ืคื•ื ื•ืช ืžื”ืื“ืžื” ื•ื”ื™ื.
02:38
Over time, these plastic chunks turn into a kind of nurdle, too,
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ื‘ืžืฉืš ื”ื–ืžืŸ, ื—ืชื™ื›ื•ืช ื”ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง ื”ืืœื• ื”ื•ืคื›ื™ื ื’ื ื”ื ืœืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ื ืจื“ืœื™ื,
02:42
but one that's been worn down by the elements, not made in a factory.
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืืœื” ืฉื ืฉื—ืงื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืื™ืชื ื™ ื”ื˜ื‘ืข, ืœื ืฉื ื•ืฆืจื• ื‘ืžืคืขืœ.
02:46
And as if they weren't threatening enough,
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ื•ื›ืื™ืœื• ืฉื”ื ืœื ื”ื™ื• ืžืื™ื™ืžื™ื ืžืกืคื™ืง,
02:48
the rough, pitted surfaces of these microplastics,
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ื”ืฉื˜ื— ื”ืžื—ื•ืกืคืก ื•ื”ืžืฉื•ืงืข ืฉืœ ื”ืžื™ืงืจื•ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืงื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
02:51
the name we give to all those collective plastic bits,
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ื”ืฉื ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื ื•ืชื ื™ื ืœื›ืœ ืกื•ื’ื™ ื—ืชื™ื›ื•ืช ื”ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง ื”ืืœื”,
02:54
water-born chemicals stick, or adhere, to them,
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ื›ื™ืžื™ืงืœื™ื ื‘ืžื™ื ื ื“ื‘ืงื™ื, ืื• ืžืชื—ื‘ืจื™ื, ืืœื™ื”ื
02:57
making them toxic.
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ื•ื”ื•ืคื›ื™ื ืื•ืชื ืœืจืขื™ืœื™ื.
02:59
This gathering has grown so immense that the oceanic garbage patch can shift
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ื”ื”ืชืืกืคื•ืช ื”ื–ื• ื’ื“ืœื” ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืฉื›ืชื ื”ื–ื‘ืœ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื ื•ืข
03:03
from around the size of Texas to something the size of the United States.
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ืžื”ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ื˜ืงืกืก ืœืžืฉื”ื• ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช.
03:08
But while this toxic tornado is circulating,
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื”ื˜ื•ืจื ื“ื• ื”ืจืขื™ืœ ื”ื–ื” ืžืกืชื•ื‘ื‘,
03:10
the birds, fish, filter feeders, whales, and crustaceans around it
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ื”ืฆื™ืคื•ืจื™ื, ื”ื“ื’ื™ื, ื”ืื•ื›ืœื™ื ื”ืžืกื ื ื™ื, ืœื•ื•ื™ืชื ื™ื, ื•ืจื›ื™ื›ื•ืช ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•
03:16
are just going about their daily business, which means they're looking for food.
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ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืžืžืฉื™ื›ื™ื ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื”ื, ืžื” ืฉืื•ืžืจ ืฉื”ื ืžื—ืคืฉื™ื ืื•ื›ืœ.
03:20
Unfortunately for them, tiny bits of floating plastic
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ืœืžืจื‘ื” ื”ืฆืขืจ ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœื, ื—ืœืงื™ื ื–ืขื™ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง ืฆืฃ
03:23
look a lot like fish eggs and other enticing bits of food.
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ื ืจืื™ื ืžืžืฉ ื›ืžื• ื‘ื™ืฆื™ ื“ื’ื™ื ื•ื—ืชื™ื›ื•ืช ืื•ื›ืœ ืžื’ืจื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช.
03:27
But once ingested, microplastics have
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉื”ื ืžืขื•ื›ืœื•ืช, ืœืžื™ืงืจื•ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง ื™ืฉ
03:29
a very different and terrible habit of sticking around.
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ืžื ื”ื’ ืฉื•ื ื” ืžืื•ื“ ื•ื ื•ืจืื™ ืœื”ืฉืืจ ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”.
03:34
Inside an animal's stomach, they not only damage its health
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ื‘ืชื•ืš ื‘ื˜ืŸ ื”ื—ื™ื”, ื”ื ืœื ืจืง ืคื•ื’ืขื™ื ื‘ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ืฉืœื”
03:37
with a cocktail of toxins they carry but can also lead to starvation
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ืขื ืงื•ืงื˜ื™ื™ืœ ืฉืœ ืจืขืœื™ื ืฉื”ื ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ืืœื ื”ื ื’ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœืจืขื‘
03:41
because although nurdles may be ingested, they're never digested,
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ืžืคื ื™ ืฉืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื”ื ืจื“ืœื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื‘ืœืข, ื”ื ืœืขื•ืœื ืœื ืžืขื•ื›ืœื™ื,
03:46
tricking an animal into feeling like it's continually full
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ื•ืžืจืžื™ื ืืช ื”ื—ื™ื” ืœื”ืจื’ื™ืฉ ื›ืื™ืœื• ื”ื™ื ื›ืœ ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืžืœืื”
03:49
and leading to its eventual death.
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ื•ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœื™ื ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืœืžื•ื•ืช ืฉืœื”.
03:52
When one organism consumes another, microplastics and their toxins
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ื›ืฉืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ื ืื—ื“ ืื•ื›ืœ ืื—ืจ, ืžื™ืงืจื•ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืงื™ื ื•ื”ืจืขืœื™ื ืฉืœื”ื
03:55
are then passed up through the food chain.
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ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืื– ื‘ืžืขืœื” ืฉืจืฉืจืช ื”ืžื–ื•ืŸ.
03:59
And that's how, bit by bit, nurdles accomplish their goal,
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ื•ื›ืš, ืœืื˜ ืœืื˜, ื ืจื“ืœื™ื ืžืฉื™ื’ื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื˜ืจื” ืฉืœื”ื,
04:03
growing ever more pervasive as they wipe out marine life
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ืœื”ืฉืชืœื˜ ืืคื™ืœื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ื›ืฉื”ื ืžื•ื—ืงื™ื ืืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ื
04:06
and reshape the ocean's ecosystems.
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ื•ืžืขืฆื‘ื™ื ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืืช ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื.
04:09
So, how to break this cycle?
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ืื–, ืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ืฉื•ื‘ืจื™ื ืืช ื”ืžืขื’ืœ?
04:11
The best solution would be to take plastics out of the equation altogether.
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ื”ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืืช ื”ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง ืžื”ืžืฉื•ื•ืื” ืœื’ืžืจื™.
04:15
That'll take a lot of time but requires only small collective changes,
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ื–ื” ื™ืงื— ื”ืจื‘ื” ื–ืžืŸ ืื‘ืœ ื“ื•ืจืฉ ืจืง ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื ืงื•ืœืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื,
04:19
like more recycling, replacing plastics with paper and glass,
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ื›ืžื• ืœืžื—ื–ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ, ืœื”ื—ืœื™ืฃ ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง ื‘ื ื™ื™ืจ ื•ื–ื›ื•ื›ื™ืช,
04:23
and ditching that toothpaste with the microbeads.
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ื•ืœื”ื—ืœื™ืฃ ืืช ืžืฉื—ืช ื”ืฉื™ื ื™ื™ื ืขื ื”ืžื™ืงืจื• ื—ืจื•ื–ื™ื.
04:26
If we accomplish these things, perhaps over time
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ืื ื ืฉื™ื’ ืืช ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื”, ืื•ืœื™ ื‘ืžืฉืš ื”ื–ืžืŸ
04:29
fewer and fewer nurdles will turn up at that giant garbage patch,
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ืคื—ื•ืช ื•ืคื—ื•ืช ื ืจื“ืœื™ื ื™ื’ื™ืขื• ืœื›ืชื ื”ื–ื‘ืœ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื”ื–ื”,
04:33
their army of plastics will grow weaker,
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ื•ืฆื‘ื ื”ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืง ื™ื—ืœืฉ,
04:35
and they'll surrender the ocean to its true keepers once more.
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ื•ื”ื ื™ื›ื ืขื• ืœืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ืœืฉื•ืžืจื™ื ื”ืืžื™ืชื™ื™ื ืฉืœื• ืคืขื ื ื•ืกืคืช.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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