Patricia Burchat: Shedding light on dark matter

75,173 views ใƒป 2008-08-25

TED


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืžืชืจื’ื: amir Goldstein ืžื‘ืงืจ: Ido Dekkers
00:18
As a particle physicist, I study the elementary particles
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ื›ืคื™ื–ื™ืงืื™ืช ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืงืจืช ืืช ื”ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื ื”ืืœืžื ื˜ืจื™ื™ื
00:22
and how they interact on the most fundamental level.
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ื•ืืช ื”ื“ืจืš ื‘ื” ื”ื ืžื’ื™ื‘ื™ื ื–ื” ืขื ื–ื” ื‘ืจืžื” ื”ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ.
00:25
For most of my research career, I've been using accelerators,
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ื‘ืžืฉืš ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืงืจื™ืจื” ื”ืžื—ืงืจื™ืช ืฉืœื™ ื”ืฉืชืžืฉืชื™ ื‘ืžืื™ืฆื™ ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื
00:28
such as the electron accelerator at Stanford University, just up the road,
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ื›ืžื• ืžืื™ืฅ ื”ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื ื™ื ืฉื‘ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ืกื˜ืื ืคื•ืจื“, ืฉื ืžืฆืืช ื‘ืžืขืœื” ื”ื›ื‘ื™ืฉ
00:31
to study things on the smallest scale.
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ืœื—ืงื™ืจืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ืงื ื” ื”ืžื™ื“ื” ื”ืงื˜ืŸ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ
00:34
But more recently, I've been turning my attention
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ืืš ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื” ื”ืคื ืชื™ ืืช ืชืฉื•ืžืช ืœื™ื‘ื™
00:36
to the universe on the largest scale.
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ืœื™ืงื•ื ื‘ืงื ื” ื”ืžื™ื“ื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ.
00:39
Because, as I'll explain to you,
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ, ื›ืคื™ ืฉืืกื‘ื™ืจ ืœื›ื,
00:41
the questions on the smallest and the largest scale are actually very connected.
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ื”ืฉืืœื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืงื˜ืŸ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ืขืœ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืงืฉื•ืจื•ืช ืžืื•ื“
00:45
So I'm going to tell you about our twenty-first-century view of the universe,
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ืœื›ืŸ ืื ื™ ื”ื•ืœื›ืช ืœืชืืจ ืœื›ื ืืช ืžื‘ื˜ื ื• ืขืœ ื”ื™ืงื•ื ื‘ืžืื” ื”-21
00:50
what it's made of and what the big questions in the physical sciences are --
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ืžืžื” ื”ื•ื ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ ื•ืžื” ื”ืŸ ื”ืฉืืœื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื‘ืžื“ืขื™ื ื”ืคื™ื–ื™ืงืืœื™ื™ื โ€“
00:53
at least some of the big questions.
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ืœืคื—ื•ืช ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืฉืืœื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช.
00:55
So, recently, we have realized
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื” ื”ื‘ื ื•
00:58
that the ordinary matter in the universe --
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ืฉื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืจื’ื™ืœ ื‘ื™ืงื•ื
01:00
and by ordinary matter, I mean you, me,
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ื•ื‘"ืจื’ื™ืœ" ืื ื™ ืžืชื›ื•ื•ื ืช ืœืš, ืœื™,
01:03
the planets, the stars, the galaxies --
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ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™-ืœื›ืช, ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื, ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช --
01:05
the ordinary matter makes up only a few percent
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ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืจื’ื™ืœ ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ ืจืง ื›ืžื” ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื
01:08
of the content of the universe.
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ืžืชื›ื•ืœืช ื”ื™ืงื•ื
01:10
Almost a quarter, or approximately a quarter
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ื›ืžืขื˜ ืจื‘ืข, ืื• ื‘ืขืจืš ืจื‘ืข
01:13
of the matter in the universe, is stuff that's invisible.
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ืžื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื‘ื™ืงื•ื, ื”ื•ื ื‘ืœืชื™ ื ืจืื”.
01:16
By invisible, I mean it doesn't absorb in the electromagnetic spectrum.
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ื›ืฉืื ื™ ืื•ืžืจืช "ื‘ืœืชื™ ื ืจืื”" ืื ื™ ืžืชื›ื•ื•ื ืช ืœื›ืš ืฉื”ื•ื ืœื ืกื•ืคื’ ืงืจื™ื ื” ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ืžื’ื ื˜ื™ืช
01:20
It doesn't emit in the electromagnetic spectrum. It doesn't reflect.
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ืœื ืคื•ืœื˜ ืงืจื™ื ื” ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ืžื’ื ื˜ื™ืช, ืœื ืžื—ื–ื™ืจ,
01:23
It doesn't interact with the electromagnetic spectrum,
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ืœื ืžื’ื™ื‘ ืขื ื”ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ื”ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ืžื’ื ื˜ื™,
01:25
which is what we use to detect things.
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ืฉื‘ื• ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ืœื’ืœื•ืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ื.
01:27
It doesn't interact at all. So how do we know it's there?
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ื–ื” ืœื ืžื’ื™ื‘ ื‘ื›ืœืœ. ืื– ืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉื–ื” ืฉื?
01:30
We know it's there by its gravitational effects.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉื–ื” ืฉื ืœืคื™ ื”ืชื•ืฆื ื”ื›ื‘ื™ื“ืชื™ ืฉืœื•.
01:32
In fact, this dark matter dominates
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืืคืœ ื”ื–ื” ืฉื•ืœื˜
01:35
the gravitational effects in the universe on a large scale,
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ื‘ืชื•ืคืขื•ืช ื”ื›ื‘ื™ื“ื” ื‘ื™ืงื•ื ื‘ืงื ื” ืžื™ื“ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœ,
01:38
and I'll be telling you about the evidence for that.
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ื•ืื ื™ ืืกื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืจืื™ื•ืช ืœื›ืš.
01:40
What about the rest of the pie?
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ืžื” ื‘ืงืฉืจ ืœืฉืืจ ื”ืขื•ื’ื”?
01:42
The rest of the pie is a very mysterious substance called dark energy.
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ืฉืืจ ื”ืขื•ื’ื” ื”ื•ื ืžืฉื”ื• ืžืกืชื•ืจื™ ืžืื•ื“ ืฉื ืงืจื ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืืคืœื”.
01:46
More about that later, OK.
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ืขื•ื“ ืขืœ ื›ืš ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš.
01:48
So for now, let's turn to the evidence for dark matter.
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ื‘ื•ืื• ื ืจืื” ืืช ื”ืจืื™ื•ืช ืœืžืฆื™ืื•ืช ื—ื•ืžืจ ืืคืœ.
01:51
In these galaxies, especially in a spiral galaxy like this,
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ื‘ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ื›ืืœื”, ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ื”ืกืคื™ืจืืœื™ื•ืช ื›ืžื• ื–ื•,
01:54
most of the mass of the stars is concentrated in the middle of the galaxy.
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ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžืกื” ืฉืœ ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ืžืจื•ื›ื–ืช ื‘ืžืจื›ื– ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื”
01:59
This huge mass of all these stars keeps stars in circular orbits in the galaxy.
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ื”ืžืกื” ื”ืขื ืงื™ืช ื”ื–ื• ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืฉื•ืžืจืช ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืชื ื•ืขื” ืกื™ื‘ื•ื‘ื™ืช ื‘ื’ืœืงืกื™ื”
02:06
So we have these stars going around in circles like this.
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ื›ืš ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืืช ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื ืขื™ื ื‘ืกื™ื‘ื•ื‘ ื›ื›ื”.
02:09
As you can imagine, even if you know physics, this should be intuitive, OK --
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ื›ืžื• ืฉืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื“ืžื™ืŸ, ื’ื ืื ืืชื ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืคื™ื–ื™ืงื” โ€“ ื–ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืื™ื ื˜ื•ืื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™,ื›ืŸ โ€“
02:13
that stars that are closer to the mass in the middle will be rotating at a higher speed
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ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ืฉืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืžืกื” ื‘ืžืจื›ื– ื™ืกืชื•ื‘ื‘ื• ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ
02:19
than those that are further out here, OK.
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ืžืืœื• ืฉื™ื•ืชืจ ืจื—ื•ืงื™ื ืฉื.
02:22
So what you would expect is that if you measured the orbital speed of the stars,
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ืื– ื”ื™ื ื• ืžืฆืคื™ื ืœื›ืš ืฉืื ื ืžื“ื•ื“ ืืช ื”ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืกื™ื‘ื•ื‘ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื
02:27
that they should be slower on the edges than on the inside.
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ื”ื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืื™ื˜ื™ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืงืฆื•ื•ืช ืžืืฉืจ ื‘ืžืจื›ื–
02:31
In other words, if we measured speed as a function of distance --
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ื‘ืžื™ืœื™ื ืื—ืจื•ืช, ืื ื ืžื“ื•ื“ ืืช ื”ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื›ืคื•ื ืงืฆื™ื” ืฉืœ ืžืจื—ืง --
02:33
this is the only time I'm going to show a graph, OK --
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ื•ื–ื• ื”ืคืขื ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” ืฉืื ื™ ืืจืื” ื’ืจืฃ ---
02:35
we would expect that it goes down as the distance increases
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ื”ื™ื ื• ืžืฆืคื™ื ืฉื”ื•ื ื™ืจื“ ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื’ื“ืœ ื”ืžืจื—ืง
02:39
from the center of the galaxy.
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ืžืžืจื›ื– ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื”
02:41
When those measurements are made,
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืžื“ื™ื“ื•ืช ื”ืืœื• ืžื‘ื•ืฆืขื•ืช
02:42
instead what we find is that the speed is basically constant,
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ื‘ืžืงื ื–ืืช, ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ืฉื”ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ืขืจืš ืงื‘ื•ืขื”,
02:45
as a function of distance.
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ื›ืคื•ื ืงืฆื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžืจื—ืง.
02:47
If it's constant, that means that the stars out here
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ืื ื”ื™ื ืงื‘ื•ืขื”, ื–ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืฉื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื›ืืŸ ื‘ื—ื•ืฅ
02:50
are feeling the gravitational effects of matter that we do not see.
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ืžืจื’ื™ืฉื™ื ืžืฉื™ื›ื” ื›ื‘ื™ื“ืชื™ืช ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืžืจ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ืจื•ืื™ื
02:54
In fact, this galaxy and every other galaxy
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื” ื”ื–ื•, ื•ื›ืœ ื’ืœืงืกื™ื” ืื—ืจืช
02:57
appears to be embedded in a cloud of this invisible dark matter.
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ื ืจืื•ืช ื›ืื™ืœื• ื”ืŸ ืžืฉื•ื‘ืฆื•ืช ื‘ืชื•ืš ืขื ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ื‘ืœืชื™-ื ืจืื” ื”ืืคืœ ื”ื–ื”
03:02
And this cloud of matter is much more spherical than the galaxy themselves,
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ืขื ืŸ ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ื–ื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื›ื“ื•ืจื™ ืžื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ืขืฆืžืŸ
03:06
and it extends over a much wider range than the galaxy.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืžืชืคืฉื˜ ืœื˜ื•ื•ื— ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช.
03:10
So we see the galaxy and fixate on that, but it's actually a cloud of dark matter
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ืื–, ืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ืืช ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ื•ืžืชืžืงื“ื™ื ื‘ื”ืŸ, ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืขืฆื ื”ืขื ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืืคืœ
03:14
that's dominating the structure and the dynamics of this galaxy.
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ื”ื•ื ืฉืฉื•ืœื˜ ื‘ืžื‘ื ื” ื•ื‘ืชื ื•ืขื” ืฉืœ ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื” ื”ื–ื•.
03:19
Galaxies themselves are not strewn randomly in space;
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ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ืขืฆืžืŸ ืœื ืžืคื•ื–ืจื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืืงืจืื™ ื‘ื—ืœืœ
03:22
they tend to cluster.
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ื”ืŸ ื ื•ื˜ื•ืช ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืฆื‘ื™ืจื™ื
03:24
And this is an example of a very, actually, famous cluster, the Coma cluster.
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ื•ื–ื• ื“ื•ื’ืžื ืœืื—ื“ ื”ืฆื‘ื™ืจื™ื ื”ืžืคื•ืจืกืžื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ, "ืฆื‘ื™ืจ ืงื•ืžื”"
03:27
And there are thousands of galaxies in this cluster.
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ื™ืฉ ืืœืคื™ ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ื‘ืฆื‘ื™ืจ
03:30
They're the white, fuzzy, elliptical things here.
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ื”ืŸ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืœื‘ื ื™ื, ื”ืžื˜ื•ืฉื˜ืฉื™ื ื”ืืœืคื˜ื™ื™ื ื›ืืŸ
03:33
So these galaxy clusters -- we take a snapshot now,
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ืื– ืื ื ื™ืงื— ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ืฆื‘ื™ืจ ื’ืœืงืกื™ื” ืขื›ืฉื™ื•
03:36
we take a snapshot in a decade, it'll look identical.
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ื•ื ื™ืงื— ืชืžื•ื ื” ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืขืฉื•ืจ -- ื”ื•ื ื™ืจืื” ื–ื”ื”
03:39
But these galaxies are actually moving at extremely high speeds.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื” ื‘ืืžืช ื ืขื•ืช ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืžืื•ื“ ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื”
03:43
They're moving around in this gravitational potential well of this cluster, OK.
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ื”ืŸ ื ืขื•ืช ื‘ืชื•ืš ื‘ืืจ ื”ื›ื‘ื™ื“ื” ื”ืคื•ื˜ื ืฆื™ืืœื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื‘ื™ืจ.
03:48
So all of these galaxies are moving.
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ืื– ื›ืœ ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื” ื ืขื•ืช.
03:50
We can measure the speeds of these galaxies, their orbital velocities,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืžื“ื•ื“ ืืช ื”ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื”, ืืช ื”ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืกื™ื‘ื•ื‘ื™ืช ืฉืœื”ืŸ.
03:54
and figure out how much mass is in this cluster.
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ื•ืœื—ืฉื‘ ื›ืžื” ืžืกื” ื™ืฉ ื‘ืฆื‘ื™ืจ
03:56
And again, what we find is that there is much more mass there
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ื•ืฉื•ื‘, ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ื–ื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืฉื ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืกื”
04:00
than can be accounted for by the galaxies that we see.
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ืžืžื” ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื.
04:04
Or if we look in other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum,
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ืื•, ืื ื ืกืชื›ืœ ื‘ื—ืœืง ืื—ืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ื”ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ืžื’ื ื˜ื™
04:06
we see that there's a lot of gas in this cluster, as well.
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ื ืจืื” ืฉื™ืฉ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื’ื– ื‘ืฆื‘ื™ืจ, ื’ื ื›ืŸ.
04:09
But that cannot account for the mass either.
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ืžืกื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืžืกื” .
04:11
In fact, there appears to be about ten times as much mass here
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื ืจืื” ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ืขืจืš ืคื™ ืขืฉืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืกื” ืคื”
04:14
in the form of this invisible or dark matter
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ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืืคืœ, ื”ื‘ืœืชื™-ื ืจืื”
04:17
as there is in the ordinary matter, OK.
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ืžืืฉืจ ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืžืจ ืจื’ื™ืœ.
04:21
It would be nice if we could see this dark matter a little bit more directly.
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ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ื ื—ืžื“ ืื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืืคืœ ื”ื–ื” ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื™ืฉื™ืจื”
04:25
I'm just putting this big, blue blob on there, OK,
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ืื ื™ ืจืง ืžื•ืกื™ืคื” ืืช ื”ืขื ืŸ ื”ื›ื—ื•ืœ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื”ื–ื” ืคื”,
04:27
to try to remind you that it's there.
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ืœื ืกื•ืช ืœื”ื–ื›ื™ืจ ืœื›ื ืฉื–ื” ืฉื.
04:29
Can we see it more visually? Yes, we can.
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ื”ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื™ืฉื™ืจื”? ื›ืŸ, ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื
04:32
And so let me lead you through how we can do this.
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ื•ื‘ื•ืื• ื ืจืื” ืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื”.
04:34
So here's an observer:
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ืื– ื”ื ื” ื”ืฆื•ืคื”
04:36
it could be an eye; it could be a telescope.
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ื–ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืขื™ืŸ, ื–ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื˜ืœืกืงื•ืค
04:38
And suppose there's a galaxy out here in the universe.
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ื•ื ื ื™ื— ืฉื™ืฉ ื’ืœืงืกื™ื” ืฉื ื‘ื™ืงื•ื
04:40
How do we see that galaxy?
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ืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ืืช ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื” ื”ื–ื•?
04:42
A ray of light leaves the galaxy and travels through the universe
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ืงืจืŸ ืื•ืจ ื™ื•ืฆืืช ืžื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื” , ื ืขื” ื“ืจืš ื”ื™ืงื•ื,
04:45
for perhaps billions of years
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ืœืžืฉืš , ืื•ืœื™, ืžืœื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉื ื™ื
04:47
before it enters the telescope or your eye.
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ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื”ื™ื ืคื•ื’ืขืช ื‘ื˜ืœืกืงื•ืค ืื• ื‘ืขื™ืŸ ืฉืœื›ื
04:50
Now, how do we deduce where the galaxy is?
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืื™ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืกื™ืงื™ื ืื™ืคื” ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื” ื ืžืฆืืช?
04:53
Well, we deduce it by the direction that the ray is traveling
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืกื™ืงื™ื ืืช ื–ื” ืœืคื™ ื”ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื‘ื” ื”ืงืจืŸ ื ืขื”
04:56
as it enters our eye, right?
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ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื™ื ืคื•ื’ืขืช ื‘ืขื™ืŸ ืฉืœื ื•, ื ื›ื•ืŸ?
04:58
We say, the ray of light came this way;
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ื‘ื•ืื• ื ื’ื™ื“, ืฉืงืจืŸ ื”ืื•ืจ ื‘ืื” ืžื”ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื”
05:00
the galaxy must be there, OK.
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ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื” ื—ื™ื™ื‘ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื›ืืŸ, ื‘ืกื“ืจ.
05:02
Now, suppose I put in the middle a cluster of galaxies --
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื ื ื™ื— ืฉืืฉื™ื ื‘ืืžืฆืข ืฆื‘ื™ืจ ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช --
05:06
and don't forget the dark matter, OK.
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ื•ืœื ืœืฉื›ื•ื— ืืช ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืืคืœ.
05:08
Now, if we consider a different ray of light, one going off like this,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ืงืจืŸ ืื•ืจ ืื—ืจืช, ืื—ืช ืฉื ืขื” ื›ื›ื”
05:12
we now need to take into account
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืงื—ืช ื‘ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืŸ
05:14
what Einstein predicted when he developed general relativity.
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ืžื” ืฉืื™ื™ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ ื—ื–ื” ื‘ืคื™ืชื•ื— ื”ื™ื—ืกื•ืช ื”ื›ืœืœื™ืช
05:17
And that was that the gravitational field, due to mass,
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ื•ื–ื” ืฉืฉื“ื” ื›ื‘ื™ื“ื”, ื”ื ื•ืฆืจ ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ืžืกื”,
05:21
will deflect not only the trajectory of particles,
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ื™ืกื™ื˜ ืœื ืจืง ืžืกืœื•ืœ ืฉืœ ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื,
05:24
but will deflect light itself.
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ืืœื ื™ืกื™ื˜ ื’ื ืืช ื”ืื•ืจ ืขืฆืžื•.
05:27
So this light ray will not continue in a straight line,
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ืœื›ืŸ ืงืจืŸ ื”ืื•ืจ ื”ื–ื• ืœื ืชืžืฉื™ืš ื‘ืงื• ื™ืฉืจ
05:30
but would rather bend and could end up going into our eye.
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ืืœื ืชืชืขืงื ื•ืชืกื™ื™ื ืืช ืžืกืœื•ืœื” ื‘ืขื™ืŸ ืฉืœื ื•.
05:34
Where will this observer see the galaxy?
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ืื™ืคื” ื”ืฆื•ืคื” ื”ื–ื” ื™ืจืื” ืืช ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื”?
05:37
You can respond. Up, right?
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ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขื ื•ืช. ืœืžืขืœื”, ื ื›ื•ืŸ?
05:41
We extrapolate backwards and say the galaxy is up here.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืžืฉื™ื›ื™ื ืื—ื•ืจื” ืืช ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ืงืจืŸ ื•ืื•ืžืจื™ื ืฉื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื” ื ืžืฆืืช ื›ืืŸ ืœืžืขืœื”.
05:44
Is there any other ray of light
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ื”ืื ื™ืฉ ืขื•ื“ ืงืจื ื™ ืื•ืจ
05:45
that could make into the observer's eye from that galaxy?
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ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืขื™ืŸ ื”ืฆื•ืคื” ืžื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื” ื”ื–ื•?
05:48
Yes, great. I see people going down like this.
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ื›ืŸ, ืžืขื•ืœื”. ืื ื™ ืจื•ืื” ืื ืฉื™ื ืขื•ืฉื™ื ื›ื›ื”.
05:51
So a ray of light could go down, be bent
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ืื›ืŸ ืงืจืŸ ืื•ืจ ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื ื•ืข ืœืžื˜ื”, ื•ืœื”ืชืขืงื
05:53
up into the observer's eye,
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ืœืžืขืœื” ืœืชื•ืš ืขื™ืŸ ื”ืฆื•ืคื”.
05:55
and the observer sees a ray of light here.
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ื•ื”ืฆื•ืคื” ื™ืจืื” ืืช ืงืจืŸ ื”ืื•ืจ ืฉื.
05:57
Now, take into account the fact that we live in
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืงื—ื• ื‘ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืŸ ืืช ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื—ื™ื™ื
05:59
a three-dimensional universe, OK,
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ื‘ื™ืงื•ื ืชืœืช-ืžื™ืžื“ื™,
06:01
a three-dimensional space.
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ื”ื—ืœืœ ืชืœืช-ืžื™ืžื“ื™.
06:03
Are there any other rays of light that could make it into the eye?
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ื”ืื ื™ืฉ ืขื•ื“ ืงืจื ื™ ืื•ืจ ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืขื™ืŸ?
06:06
Yes! The rays would lie on a -- I'd like to see -- yeah, on a cone.
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ื›ืŸ! ื”ืงืจื ื™ื ื™ื™ืฆืจื• -- ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืจืื•ืช -- ื›ืŸ, ื—ืจื•ื˜.
06:12
So there's a whole ray of light -- rays of light on a cone --
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ืื– ื™ืฉ ื”ืžื•ืŸ ืงืจื ื™ ืื•ืจ -- ืงืจื ื™ ืื•ืจ ืขืœ ื—ืจื•ื˜ --
06:14
that will all be bent by that cluster
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ืฉื›ื•ืœืŸ ืชืชืขืงืžื ื” ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืฆื‘ื™ืจ ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช
06:16
and make it into the observer's eye.
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ื•ื›ื•ืœืŸ ื™ื’ื™ืขื• ืœืขื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื•ืคื”.
06:19
If there is a cone of light coming into my eye, what do I see?
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ืื ื™ืฉ ื—ืจื•ื˜ ืฉืœ ืื•ืจ ืฉืžื’ื™ืข ืœืขื™ืŸ ืฉืœื™, ืžื” ืื ื™ ืืจืื”?
06:24
A circle, a ring. It's called an Einstein ring. Einstein predicted that, OK.
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ืžืขื’ืœ, ื˜ื‘ืขืช. ื–ื” ื ืงืจื "ื˜ื‘ืขืช ืื™ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ" -- ืื™ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ ื—ื–ื” ืืช ื”ืชื•ืคืขื”.
06:28
Now, it will only be a perfect ring if the source, the deflector
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื–ื• ืชื”ื™ื” ื˜ื‘ืขืช ืžื•ืฉืœืžืช ืื ื”ืžืงื•ืจ, ื”ื’ื•ืจื ื”ืžืขื•ื•ืช,
06:33
and the eyeball, in this case, are all in a perfectly straight line.
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ื•ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืขื™ืŸ, ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ื–ื”, ื›ื•ืœื ืขืœ ืงื• ื™ืฉืจ ืื—ื“.
06:38
If they're slightly skewed, we'll see a different image.
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ืื ื”ืงื• ืœื ื™ืฉืจ ืœื’ืžืจื™, ื ืจืื” ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉื•ื ื”.
06:41
Now, you can do an experiment tonight over the reception, OK,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ื”ืขืจื‘, ื‘ืงื‘ืœืช ื”ืคื ื™ื,
06:44
to figure out what that image will look like.
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ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื” ื ืจืื”
06:47
Because it turns out that there is a kind of lens that we can devise,
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ื›ื™ ืžืชื‘ืจืจ ืฉื™ืฉ ืขื“ืฉื” ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ
06:51
that has the right shape to produce this kind of effect.
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ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื” ืืช ื”ืฆื•ืจื” ื”ื ื›ื•ื ื” ืœื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ืกื•ื’ ื›ื–ื” ืฉืœ ืืคืงื˜
06:54
We call this gravitational lensing.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืงื•ืจืื™ื ืœื–ื” "ืขื™ื“ื•ืฉ ื›ื‘ื™ื“ืชื™"
06:56
And so, this is your instrument, OK.
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ื•ื›ืš, ื–ื” ื”ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ ื”ืžื“ืขื™, ื‘ืกื“ืจ.
06:59
(Laughter).
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
07:00
But ignore the top part.
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ืื‘ืœ ืชืชืขืœืžื• ืžื”ื—ืœืง ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ.
07:03
It's the base that I want you to concentrate, OK.
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ื–ื” ื”ื‘ืกื™ืก ื‘ื• ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืฉืชืชืจื›ื–ื•, ื‘ืกื“ืจ.
07:06
So, actually, at home, whenever we break a wineglass,
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ืื– , ื‘ื‘ื™ืช, ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฉื•ื‘ืจื™ื ื›ื•ืก ื™ื™ืŸ
07:08
I save the bottom, take it over to the machine shop.
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ืื ื™ ืฉื•ืžืจืช ืืช ื”ืชื—ืชื™ืช, ืœื•ืงื—ืช ืื•ืชื” ืœืกื“ื ื
07:10
We shave it off, and I have a little gravitational lens, OK.
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ืžืฉื™ื™ืคื™ื ืื•ืชื”, ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื™ ืขื“ืฉื” ื›ื‘ื™ื“ืชื™ืช ืงื˜ื ื”.
07:14
So it's got the right shape to produce the lensing.
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ื™ืฉ ืœื–ื” ืืช ื”ืฆื•ืจื” ื”ื ื›ื•ื ื” ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื”ืขื™ื“ื•ืฉ.
07:16
And so the next thing you need to do in your experiment
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ื•ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื‘ื ืฉืืชื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื‘ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ื”ื–ื”
07:18
is grab a napkin. I grabbed a piece of graph paper -- I'm a physicist. (Laughter)
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ื–ื” ืœืงื—ืช ืžืคื™ืช. ืื ื™ ืœืงื—ืชื™ ืคื™ืกืช ื ื™ื™ืจ ืžืฉื•ื‘ืฅ, ืื ื™ ืคื™ื–ื™ืงืื™ืช. (ืฆื—ื•ืง)
07:22
So, a napkin. Draw a little model galaxy in the middle.
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ืื–, ืžืคื™ืช. ืœืฆื™ื™ืจ ืžื•ื“ืœ ืงื˜ืŸ ืฉืœ ื’ืœืงืกื™ื” ื‘ืžืจื›ื–
07:26
And now put the lens over the galaxy,
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ื•ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืœืฉื™ื ืืช ื”ืขื“ืฉื” ืขืœ ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื”.
07:29
and what you'll find is that you'll see a ring, an Einstein ring.
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ื•ืžื” ืฉืชื’ืœื• ื–ื” ืฉืชืจืื• ื˜ื‘ืขืช , ื˜ื‘ืขืช ืื™ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ
07:32
Now, move the base off to the side,
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ื•ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื”ื–ื™ื–ื• ืืช ื”ื‘ืกื™ืก ืžืขื˜ ื”ืฆื™ื“ื”,
07:35
and the ring will split up into arcs, OK.
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ื•ื”ื˜ื‘ืขืช ืชืชืคืฆืœ ืœืงืฉืชื•ืช.
07:38
And you can put it on top of any image.
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ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื–ืืช ืขื ื›ืœ ืชืžื•ื ื”.
07:40
On the graph paper, you can see
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ืขืœ ื”ื ื™ื™ืจ ื”ืžืฉื•ื‘ืฅ ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช
07:41
how all the lines on the graph paper have been distorted.
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ืื™ืš ื›ืœ ื”ืงื•ื™ื ื”ืžืฉื•ื‘ืฆื™ื ืžื•ืคืจืขื™ื
07:43
And again, this is a kind of an accurate model
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ื•ืฉื•ื‘, ื–ื” ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืžื•ื“ืœ ื“ื™ ืžื“ื•ื™ืง
07:46
of what happens with the gravitational lensing.
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ืœืžื” ืฉืžืชืจื—ืฉ ื‘ืขื™ื“ื•ืฉ ื›ื‘ื™ื“ืชื™
07:48
OK, so the question is: do we see this in the sky?
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ื‘ืกื“ืจ, ืื– ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ื™ื: ื”ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ืฉืžื™ื?
07:52
Do we see arcs in the sky when we look at, say, a cluster of galaxies?
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ื”ืื ืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ืงืฉืชื•ืช ื‘ืฉืžื™ื ื›ืืฉืจ ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืกืชื›ืœื™ื, ื ืืžืจ, ื‘ืฆื‘ื™ืจ ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช?
07:56
And the answer is yes.
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ื•ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื: ื›ืŸ.
07:58
And so, here's an image from the Hubble Space Telescope.
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ื•ื”ื ื”, ืชืžื•ื ื” ืžื˜ืœืกืงื•ืค ื”ื—ืœืœ "ื”ืื‘ืœ"
08:00
Many of the images you are seeing
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื”ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื
08:02
are earlier from the Hubble Space Telescope.
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ืžืงื•ืจืŸ ื‘ื˜ืœืกืงื•ืค ื”ื—ืœืœ ื”ืื‘ืœ.
08:04
Well, first of all, for the golden shape galaxies --
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ื“ื‘ืจ ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ื”ื–ื”ื•ื‘ื•ืช
08:06
those are the galaxies in the cluster.
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ืืœื• ื”ืŸ ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ื‘ืฆื‘ื™ืจ
08:09
They're the ones that are embedded in that sea of dark matter
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ื”ืŸ ืืœื• ืฉืžืฉื•ื‘ืฆื•ืช ื‘ื™ื ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืืคืœ
08:13
that are causing the bending of the light
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ืฉื’ื•ืจื ืœืขื™ืงื•ื ื”ืื•ืจ
08:15
to cause these optical illusions, or mirages, practically,
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ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื”ืืฉืœื™ื” ื”ืื•ืคื˜ื™ืช ื”ื–ื•, ืื• ื—ื–ื™ื•ืŸ ืชืขืชื•ืขื™ื, ื‘ืขืฆื,
08:18
of the background galaxies.
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ืฉืœ ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ืฉื‘ืจืงืข
08:20
So the streaks that you see, all these streaks,
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ื›ืš ืฉื›ืœ ื”ืงื•ื™ื ื”ืžืจื•ื—ื™ื ื”ืืœื• ืฉืืชื ืจื•ืื™ื, ื›ืœ ื”ืžืจื™ื—ื•ืช
08:23
are actually distorted images of galaxies that are much further away.
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ื”ืŸ ื‘ืขืฆื ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ืžืขื•ื•ืชื•ืช ืฉืœ ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ืฉื ืžืฆืื•ืช ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืจื—ื•ืง, ืžืขื‘ืจ
08:27
So what we can do, then, is based on how much distortion
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ื•ืื– ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช, ื‘ื”ืกืชืžืš ืขืœ ื›ืžื” ืขื™ื•ื•ืชื™ื
08:30
we see in those images, we can calculate how much mass
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืืœื”, ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื—ืฉื‘ ื›ืžื” ืžืกื”
08:34
there must be in this cluster.
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ื—ื™ื™ื‘ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืฆื‘ื™ืจ ื”ื–ื”.
08:36
And it's an enormous amount of mass.
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ื•ื–ื• ื›ืžื•ืช ืขืฆื•ืžื” ืฉืœ ืžืกื”.
08:38
And also, you can tell by eye, by looking at this,
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ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ, ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื’ื™ื“ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืชื‘ื•ื ื ื•ืช ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื”
08:40
that these arcs are not centered on individual galaxies.
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ืฉื”ืงืฉืชื•ืช ื”ืืœื” ืœื ืžืจื•ื›ื–ื•ืช ืขืœ ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžื•ืช
08:44
They are centered on some more spread out structure,
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ื”ืŸ ืžืจื•ื›ื–ื•ืช ืขืœ ืžื‘ื ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืคื•ื–ืจื™ื
08:48
and that is the dark matter
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืืคืœ
08:52
in which the cluster is embedded, OK.
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ืฉื‘ื• ื”ืฆื‘ื™ืจ ืžืฉื•ื‘ืฅ.
08:55
So this is the closest you can get to kind of seeing
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ืื– ื–ื” ื”ื›ื™ ืงืจื•ื‘ ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืื™ื–ืฉื”ื• ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืจืื™ื™ื”
08:57
at least the effects of the dark matter with your naked eye.
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ืฉืœ ืœืคื—ื•ืช ื”ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืืคืœ , ื‘ืขื™ืŸ ื‘ืœืชื™ ืžื–ื•ื™ื ืช.
09:00
OK, so, a quick review then, to see that you're following.
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ืื–, ื—ื–ืจื” ืงืฆืจื”, ืœื•ื•ื“ื ืฉืืชื ืขื•ืงื‘ื™ื.
09:03
So the evidence that we have
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ื”ืจืื™ื•ืช ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื•
09:05
that a quarter of the universe is dark matter --
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ืฉืจื‘ืข ืžื”ื™ืงื•ื ื”ื•ื ื—ื•ืžืจ ืืคืœ --
09:07
this gravitationally attracting stuff --
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ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉืžืคืขื™ืœ ืžืฉื™ื›ื” ื›ื‘ื™ื“ืชื™ืช --
09:09
is that galaxies, the speed with which stars orbiting galaxies
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ื”ืŸ ืฉื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช, ื”ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ื” ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ืžืงื™ืคื™ื ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช
09:13
is much too large; it must be embedded in dark matter.
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื™ื“ื™ ื’ื“ื•ืœื”, ื”ืŸ ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืฉื•ื‘ืฆื•ืช ื‘ื—ื•ืžืจ ืืคืœ.
09:16
The speed with which galaxies within clusters are orbiting is much too large;
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ื”ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ื” ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ื‘ืชื•ืš ืฆื‘ื™ืจื™ื ื ืขื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืžื™ื“ื™
09:20
it must be embedded in dark matter.
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ื”ืฆื‘ื™ืจื™ื ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืฉื•ื‘ืฆื™ื ื‘ื—ื•ืžืจ ืืคืœ.
09:22
And we see these gravitational lensing effects, these distortions
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ืืช ืชื•ืฆื ื”"ืขื™ืฉื•ื“ ื”ื›ื‘ื™ื“ืชื™" ื”ื–ื”, ื”ืขื™ื•ื•ืชื™ื ื”ืืœื•,
09:26
that say that, again, clusters are embedded in dark matter.
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ืฉืื•ืžืจ, ืฉื•ื‘, ืฆื‘ื™ืจื™ื ืžืฉื•ื‘ืฆื™ื ื‘ื—ื•ืžืจ ืืคืœ.
09:29
OK. So now, let's turn to dark energy.
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ื˜ื•ื‘. ืื– ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื‘ื•ืื• ื ืคื ื” ืœืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืืคืœื”.
09:33
So to understand the evidence for dark energy, we need to discuss something
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ืจืื™ื•ืช ืœืงื™ื•ื ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืืคืœื”, ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืžืฉื”ื•
09:36
that Stephen Hawking referred to in the previous session.
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ืฉืกื˜ืคืŸ ื”ื•ืงื™ื ื’ ื”ื–ื›ื™ืจ ื‘ืฉื™ื—ื” ืงื•ื“ืžืช,
09:40
And that is the fact that space itself is expanding.
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ื•ื–ื” ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉื”ื—ืœืœ ืขืฆืžื• ืžืชืคืฉื˜
09:44
So if we imagine a section of our infinite universe --
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ืื ื ื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื™ืงื•ื ื”ืื™ื ืกื•ืคื™ ืฉืœื ื•, ื›ืŸ
09:49
and so I've put down four spiral galaxies, OK --
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ื•ืฉืžืชื™ ื‘ื• ืืจื‘ืข ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ืกืคื™ืจืืœื™ื•ืช
09:52
and imagine that you put down a set of tape measures,
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ื•ื“ืžื™ื™ื ื• ืฉื”ื•ืกืคื ื• ืกืจื˜ื™ ืžื“ื™ื“ื”,
09:56
so every line on here corresponds to a tape measure,
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ื›ืš ืฉื›ืœ ืงื• ืฉื ืžืชืื™ื ืœืกืจื˜ ืžื“ื™ื“ื”
09:58
horizontal or vertical, for measuring where things are.
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ืื ื›ื™ ืื• ืื•ืคืงื™ -- ื›ื“ื™ ืœืžื“ื•ื“ ืื™ืคื” ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื ืžืฆืื™ื.
10:02
If you could do this, what you would find
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ืื ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื–ื”, ืžื” ืฉืชืžืฆืื•
10:04
that with each passing day, each passing year,
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ื–ื” ืฉื‘ื›ืœ ื™ื•ื ืฉื—ื•ืœืฃ, ื‘ื›ืœ ืฉื ื” ืฉืขื•ื‘ืจืช,
10:07
each passing billions of years, OK,
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ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื” ืฉืขื•ื‘ืจื™ื, ื‘ืกื“ืจ
10:10
the distance between galaxies is getting greater.
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ื”ืžืจื—ืง ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ื”ื•ืœืš ื•ื’ื“ืœ
10:13
And it's not because galaxies are moving
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ื•ื–ื” ืœื ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ื ืขื•ืช
10:14
away from each other through space.
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ื•ืžืชืจื—ืงื•ืช ืื—ืช ืžื”ืฉื ื™ื” ื“ืจืš ื”ื—ืœืœ
10:17
They're not necessarily moving through space.
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ื”ืŸ ืœื ื‘ื”ื›ืจื— ื ืขื•ืช ื“ืจืš ื”ื—ืœืœ
10:19
They're moving away from each other
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ื”ืŸ ื ืขื•ืช ื•ืžืชืจื—ืงื•ืช ืื—ืช ืžื”ืฉื ื™ื”
10:21
because space itself is getting bigger, OK.
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื—ืœืœ ืขืฆืžื• ื ืขืฉื” ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ, ื‘ืกื“ืจ.
10:24
That's what the expansion of the universe or space means.
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ื•ืœื›ืš ืžืชื›ื•ื•ื ื™ื ื›ืฉืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืชืจื—ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื™ืงื•ื ืื• ื”ื—ืœืœ.
10:28
So they're moving further apart.
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ืื– ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ืžืชืจื—ืงื•ืช ืื—ืช ืžื”ืฉื ื™ื”
10:30
Now, what Stephen Hawking mentioned, as well,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืžื” ืฉืกื˜ืคืŸ ื”ื•ืงื™ื ื’ ื”ื–ื›ื™ืจ
10:34
is that after the Big Bang, space expanded at a very rapid rate.
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ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืžืคืฅ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ, ื”ื—ืœืœ ื”ืชืจื—ื‘ ื‘ืงืฆื‘ ืžืื•ื“ ื’ื‘ื•ื”.
10:40
But because gravitationally attracting matter
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ืืš ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื”ื—ื•ืžืจ, ืฉื’ื•ืจื ืœื›ื‘ื™ื“ื”
10:44
is embedded in this space,
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ื ืžืฆื ื‘ื—ืœืœ
10:46
it tends to slow down the expansion of the space, OK.
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ื”ื•ื ื ื•ื˜ื” ืœื”ืื˜ ืืช ื”ืชืจื—ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื—ืœืœ. ื‘ืกื“ืจ
10:49
So the expansion slows down with time.
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ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื”ืชืจื—ื‘ื•ืช ืžืื™ื˜ื” ืขื ื”ื–ืžืŸ
10:52
So, in the last century, OK, people debated
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ, ื‘ืžืื” ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื”, ื›ืŸ, ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืชื—ื™ืœื• ืœื”ืชื•ื•ื›ื—
10:56
about whether this expansion of space would continue forever;
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ื”ืื ื”ื”ืชืจื—ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื–ื• ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืœืœ ืชื™ืžืฉืš ืœื ืฆื—,
11:01
whether it would slow down, you know,
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ื”ืื ื”ื™ื ืชืื˜, ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื,
11:03
will be slowing down, but continue forever;
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ืชืื˜ ืื‘ืœ ืชืžืฉืš ืœื ืฆื—,
11:05
slow down and stop, asymptotically stop;
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ืชืื˜ ื•ืชืขืฆื•ืจ, ืขืฆื™ืจื” ืืกื™ืžืคื˜ื•ื˜ื™ืช
11:10
or slow down, stop, and then reverse, so it starts to contract again.
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ืื• ืชืื˜, ืชืขืฆื•ืจ, ื•ืื– ืชืชื”ืคืš, ื•ื”ื™ืงื•ื ื™ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื”ืชื›ื•ื•ืฅ ืฉื•ื‘.
11:15
So a little over a decade ago,
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ืื– ืงืฆืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืขืฉื•ืจ ืื—ื•ืจื”
11:17
two groups of physicists and astronomers
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ืฉืชื™ ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืฉืœ ืคื™ื–ื™ืงืื™ื ื•ืืกื˜ืจื•ื ื•ืžื™ื
11:22
set out to measure the rate at which
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ื ื™ืกื• ืœืžื“ื•ื“ ืืช ื”ืงืฆื‘ ื‘ื•
11:24
the expansion of space was slowing down, OK.
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ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ื”ื™ืงื•ื ืžืื™ื˜ื”, ื‘ืกื“ืจ.
11:28
By how much less is it expanding today,
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ื‘ื›ืžื” ืคื—ื•ืช ื–ื” ืžืชืคืฉื˜ ื”ื™ื•ื,
11:30
compared to, say, a couple of billion years ago?
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ืœืขื•ืžืช, ื ื’ื™ื“, ื›ืžื” ืžืœื™ืืจื“ ืฉื ื™ื ืžื•ืงื“ื ื™ื•ืชืจ?
11:33
The startling answer to this question, OK, from these experiments,
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ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื” ืœืฉืืœื” ื–ื•, ื›ืŸ, ืžื”ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ื”ืืœื”,
11:38
was that space is expanding at a faster rate today
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ื”ื™ืชื” ืฉื”ื—ืœืœ ืžืชืคืฉื˜ ื‘ืงืฆื‘ ืžื”ื™ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ื™ื•ื,
11:42
than it was a few billion years ago, OK.
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ืžืืฉืจ ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืžื” ืžืœื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉื ื”, ื˜ื•ื‘.
11:45
So the expansion of space is actually speeding up.
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ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืœืœ ื‘ืขืฆื ืžืื™ืฆื”.
11:48
This was a completely surprising result.
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ื–ื• ื”ื™ืชื” ืชื•ืฆืื” ืžืคืชื™ืขื” ื‘ื”ื—ืœื˜.
11:51
There is no persuasive theoretical argument for why this should happen, OK.
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ืื™ืŸ ื›ืœ ื˜ื™ืขื•ืŸ ืชื™ืื•ืจืชื™ ืžืฉื›ื ืข ื”ืžืกื‘ื™ืจ ืœืžื” ื–ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืงืจื•ืช, ื‘ืกื“ืจ.
11:57
No one was predicting ahead of time this is what's going to be found.
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ืืฃ ืื—ื“ ืœื ื—ื–ื”, ืœืคื ื™ ื”ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื, ืฉื–ื” ืžื” ืฉื™ื™ืžืฆื
12:00
It was the opposite of what was expected.
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ื–ื” ื”ื”ืคืš ืžืžื” ืฉื”ื™ื” ืžืฆื•ืคื”
12:02
So we need something to be able to explain that.
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉื™ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื–ื”.
12:05
Now it turns out, in the mathematics,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืžืชื‘ืจืจ, ื‘ืžืชืžื˜ื™ืงื”
12:07
you can put it in as a term that's an energy,
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ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืœืฉื™ื ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ืชื•ืจ ืื ืจื’ื™ื”
12:11
but it's a completely different type of energy
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ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืกื•ื’ ืื—ืจ ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืฉืœ ืื ืจื’ื™ื”
12:12
from anything we've ever seen before.
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ืžื›ืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉืจืื™ื ื• ื‘ืขื‘ืจ
12:14
We call it dark energy,
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืงื•ืจืื™ื ืœื–ื” ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืืคืœื”
12:16
and it has this effect of causing space to expand.
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื” ืืช ื”ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืฉืœ ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœื—ืœืœ ืœื”ืชืคืฉื˜.
12:19
But we don't have a good motivation
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ืื‘ืœ ืื™ืŸ ืœื ื• ืžื ื™ืข ื˜ื•ื‘
12:21
for putting it in there at this point, OK.
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ืœืฉื™ื ืืช ื–ื” ืฉื ื‘ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื–ื•, ื˜ื•ื‘.
12:23
So it's really unexplained as to why we need to put it in.
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ื•ื‘ืขืฆื ืื™ืŸ ืœื ื• ื”ืกื‘ืจ ื‘ืงืฉืจ ืœืกื™ื‘ื” ืฉื‘ื’ื™ื ื” ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื™ื ืœืฉื™ื ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ืžืฉื•ื•ืื”.
12:26
Now, so at this point, then, what I want to really emphasize to you,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื‘ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื–ื•, ืœื›ืŸ, ืžื” ืฉืื ื™ ื‘ืืžืช ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ืœื›ื,
12:30
is that, first of all, dark matter and dark energy
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ื–ื”, ืฉื“ื‘ืจ ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ื—ื•ืžืจ ืืคืœ ื•ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืืคืœื”
12:32
are completely different things, OK.
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ื”ื ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ, ื‘ืกื“ืจ.
12:34
There are really two mysteries out there as to what makes up most of the universe,
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ื™ืฉ ืฉื ื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืžืกืชื•ืจื™ื™ื ืฉื ื‘ื—ื•ืฅ ืฉืžืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ืืช ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื™ืงื•ื
12:38
and they have very different effects.
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืฉื•ื ื” ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ
12:41
Dark matter, because it gravitationally attracts,
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ื—ื•ืžืจ ืืคืœ, ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžืฉื™ื›ื” ื”ื›ื‘ื™ื“ืชื™ืช ืฉืœื•
12:44
it tends to encourage the growth of structure, OK.
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ื ื•ื˜ื” ืœืขื•ื“ื“ ื’ื“ื™ืœื” ืฉืœ ืžื‘ื ื™ื, ื‘ืกื“ืจ.
12:48
So clusters of galaxies will tend to form,
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ, ืฆื‘ื™ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช ื ื•ื˜ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ื•ืฆืจ
12:51
because of all this gravitational attraction.
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื›ืœ ื”ืžืฉื™ื›ื” ื”ื›ื‘ื™ื“ืชื™ืช ื”ื–ื•
12:53
Dark energy, on the other hand,
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ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืืคืœื”, ืžืฆื“ ืฉื ื™
12:55
is putting more and more space between the galaxies,
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ืžื•ืกื™ืคื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ ื—ืœืœ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช
12:59
makes it, the gravitational attraction between them decrease,
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ื’ื•ืจืžืช ืœื–ื” -- ืœืžืฉื™ื›ื” ื”ื›ื‘ื™ื“ืชื™ืช ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ืŸ -- ืœืงื˜ื•ืŸ.
13:02
and so it impedes the growth of structure.
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื™ื ืžืขื›ื‘ืช ื’ื“ื™ืœื” ืฉืœ ืžื‘ื ื™ื.
13:05
So by looking at things like clusters of galaxies,
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื‘ื”ืชื‘ื•ื ื ื•ืช ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื›ืžื• ืฆื‘ื™ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื’ืœืงืกื™ื•ืช,
13:08
and how they -- their number density,
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ื•ืื™ืš ื”ื -- ืžืกืคืจื, ืฆืคื™ืคื•ืชื,
13:12
how many there are as a function of time --
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ื›ืžื” ื™ืฉ ืžื”ื ื›ืคื•ื ืงืฆื™ื” ืฉืœ ื–ืžืŸ --
13:14
we can learn about how dark matter and dark energy
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืœืžื•ื“ ืื™ืš ื—ื•ืžืจ ืืคืœ ื•ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืืคืœื”
13:18
compete against each other in structure forming.
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ืžืชื—ืจื™ื ืื—ื“ ื‘ืฉื ื™ ื‘ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืžื‘ื ื™ื.
13:21
In terms of dark matter, I said that we don't have any,
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ื‘ืžื•ื ื—ื™ื ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืžืจ ืืคืœ, ืืžืจืชื™ ืฉืื™ืŸ ืœื ื• ืฉื•ื
13:24
you know, really persuasive argument for dark energy.
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ืืชื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื, ื˜ื™ืขื•ืŸ ืžืฉื›ื ืข ื‘ืืžืช ืœื”ืกื‘ืจืช ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืืคืœื”.
13:28
Do we have anything for dark matter? And the answer is yes.
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ื”ืื ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืžืฉื”ื• ืœื”ืกื‘ืจืช ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืืคืœ? ื•ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื: ื›ืŸ
13:31
We have well-motivated candidates for the dark matter.
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ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืžื•ืขืžื“ ืžืฉื›ื ืข ืœื—ื•ืžืจ ืืคืœ.
13:34
Now, what do I mean by well motivated?
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืžื” ืื ื™ ืžืชื›ื•ื•ื ืช ื›ืฉืื ื™ ืื•ืžืจืช ืžืฉื›ื ืข?
13:37
I mean that we have mathematically consistent theories
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ืื ื™ ืžืชื›ื•ื•ื ืช ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืชื™ืื•ืจื™ื•ืช ืขืงื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืชืžื˜ื™
13:42
that were actually introduced
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ืฉื”ื•ืฆื’ื•, ืœืžืขืŸ ื”ืืžืช,
13:44
to explain a completely different phenomenon, OK,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืชื•ืคืขื” ืื—ืจืช ืœื’ืžืจื™, ื‘ืกื“ืจ.
13:47
things that I haven't even talked about,
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ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืืคื™ืœื• ืœื ื“ื™ื‘ืจืชื™ ืขืœื™ื•,
13:49
that each predict the existence
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ืฉื›ื•ืœืŸ ืžื ื‘ืื•ืช ืืช ืงื™ื•ืžื•
13:52
of a very weakly interacting, new particle.
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ืฉืœ ื—ืœืงื™ืง ื—ื“ืฉ ื‘ืขืœ ืื™ื ื˜ืจืืงืฆื™ื•ืช ืžืื•ื“ ื—ืœืฉื•ืช
13:55
So, this is exactly what you want in physics:
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ืื–, ื–ื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื ื‘ืคื™ื–ื™ืงื”:
13:57
where a prediction comes out of a mathematically consistent theory
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ืชื—ื–ื™ืช ืฉื™ื•ืฆืืช ืžืชื•ืš ืชื™ืื•ืจื™ื” ืขืงื‘ื™ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืชืžื˜ื™
14:01
that was actually developed for something else.
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ืฉื‘ืขืฆื ืคื•ืชื—ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื ื•ืฉื ืื—ืจ
14:03
But we don't know if either of those
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืื ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืžืืœื”
14:06
are actually the dark matter candidate, OK.
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ื”ื•ื ื‘ืืžืช ื”ืžื•ืขืžื“ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืืคืœ, ื‘ืกื“ืจ.
14:09
One or both, who knows? Or it could be something completely different.
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ืื—ื“ ืื• ืฉื ื™ื”ื, ืžื™ ื™ื•ื“ืข? ืื• ืฉื–ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉื•ื ื” ืœื’ืžืจื™
14:12
Now, we look for these dark matter particles
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื—ืคืฉื™ื ืืช ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืืคืœ ื”ืืœื•
14:14
because, after all, they are here in the room, OK,
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ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉืœืื—ืจ ื”ื›ืœ, ื”ื ื›ืืŸ ื‘ื—ื“ืจ, ื‘ืกื“ืจ.
14:17
and they didn't come in the door.
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ื•ื”ื ืœื ื‘ืื• ื“ืจืš ื”ื“ืœืช
14:18
They just pass through anything.
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ื”ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืขื‘ืจื• ื“ืจืš ื”ื›ืœ
14:20
They can come through the building, through the Earth --
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ื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ื“ืจืš ื”ื‘ื ื™ืŸ, ื“ืจืš ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ
14:22
they're so non-interacting.
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ื”ื ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื—ืกืจื™-ืื™ื ื˜ืจืืงืฆื™ื”
14:24
So one way to look for them is to build detectors
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ื›ืš ืฉืื—ืช ื”ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืœื—ืคืฉ ืื—ืจื™ื”ื ื”ื™ื ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ื’ืœืื™ื
14:27
that are extremely sensitive to a dark matter particle coming through and bumping it.
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ืžืื•ื“ ืจื’ื™ืฉื™ื ืœื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ ื—ื•ืžืจ ืืคืœ ืฉืขื•ื‘ืจื™ื ื“ืจื›ื ื•ืžืชื ื’ืฉื™ื ื‘ื”ื
14:31
So a crystal that will ring if that happens.
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ื›ืžื• ื’ื‘ื™ืฉ ืฉื™ืฆืœืฆืœ ื›ืฉื–ื” ืงื•ืจื”.
14:34
So one of my colleagues up the road and his collaborators
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ื›ืš ืฉืื—ื“ ืžืขืžื™ืชื™ ื‘ืžืขืœื” ื”ื›ื‘ื™ืฉ, ื•ืงื‘ื•ืฆืชื•
14:36
have built such a detector.
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ื‘ื ื• ื’ืœืื™ ื›ื–ื”
14:38
And they've put it deep down in an iron mine in Minnesota,
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ื•ื”ื ื”ืชืงื™ื ื• ืื•ืชื• ืขืžื•ืง ื‘ืื“ืžื”, ื‘ืžื›ืจื” ื‘ืจื–ืœ ื‘ืžื™ื ื™ืกื•ื˜ื”.
14:41
OK, deep under the ground, and in fact, in the last couple of days
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ื›ืŸ? -- ืขืžื•ืง ื‘ืื“ืžื” -- ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื‘ื™ืžื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื
14:44
announced the most sensitive results so far.
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ื”ื ื”ื›ืจื™ื–ื• ืขืœ ื”ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ื”ื›ื™ ืจื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ืขื“ ื›ื”
14:47
They haven't seen anything, OK, but it puts limits on what the mass
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ื”ื ืœื ืจืื• ื›ืœื•ื. ื‘ืกื“ืจ, ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืฉื ื’ื‘ื•ืœ ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืžืกื”
14:50
and the interaction strength of these dark matter particles are.
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ื•ื—ื•ื–ืง ื”ืื™ื ื˜ืจืืฆื™ื” ืฉืœื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ ื”ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ืืคืœ ื”ืืœื” ื™ืฉ
14:53
There's going to be a satellite telescope launched later this year
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ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ื”ืฉื ื” ืขื•ืžื“ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžืฉื•ื’ืจ ื˜ืœืกืงื•ืค ืขืœ ืœื•ื•ื™ืŸ
14:57
and it will look towards the middle of the galaxy,
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ื•ื”ื•ื ื™ืกืชื›ืœ ืœื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืžืจื›ื– ื”ื’ืœืงืกื™ื”
15:00
to see if we can see dark matter particles annihilating
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื‘ื“ื•ืง ื”ืื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืจืื•ืช ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ ื—ื•ืžืจ ืืคืœ ืžืชืื™ื™ื ื™ื
15:02
and producing gamma rays that could be detected with this.
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ื•ืžืคื™ืงื™ื ืงืจื™ื ืช ื’ืžื ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ืชื’ืœื•ืช ื‘ืขื–ืจืชื•
15:06
The Large Hadron Collider, a particle physics accelerator,
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"ืžื ื’ื™ืฉ ื”ื”ื“ืจื•ื ื™ื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ", ืžืื™ืฅ ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื
15:09
that we'll be turning on later this year.
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ืฉื™ื•ืคืขืœ ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืฉื ื” ื–ื•
15:12
It is possible that dark matter particles might be produced
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ื–ื” ืืคืฉืจื™ ืฉื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ ื—ื•ืžืจ ืืคืœ ื™ื™ื•ืฆืจื•
15:15
at the Large Hadron Collider.
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ื‘ืžื ื’ื™ืฉ ื”ื”ื“ืจื•ื ื™ื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ
15:17
Now, because they are so non-interactive,
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื”ื ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื—ืกืจื™-ืื™ื ื˜ืจืืงืฆื™ื”
15:18
they will actually escape the detector,
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ื”ื ื‘ืขืฆื ื™ื‘ืจื—ื• ืžื”ื’ืœืื™
15:21
so their signature will be missing energy, OK.
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ื›ืš ืฉื”ืกื™ืžืŸ ืœื ื•ื›ื—ื•ืชื ื™ื”ื™ื” ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื—ืกืจื”, ื‘ืกื“ืจ.
15:24
Now, unfortunately, there is a lot of new physics
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืœืจื•ืข ืžื–ืœื ื•, ื™ืฉ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื
15:27
whose signature could be missing energy,
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ืฉื”ืกื™ืžืŸ ืœื ื•ื›ื—ื•ืชื ื”ื•ื ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื—ืกืจื”.
15:29
so it will be hard to tell the difference.
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ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืงืฉื” ืœื”ื‘ื“ื™ืœ
15:31
And finally, for future endeavors, there are telescopes being designed
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ื•ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ, ื›ื ืกื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืขืชื™ื“ื™ื™ื, ื™ืฉื ื ื˜ืœืกืงื•ืคื™ื ืฉืขื•ืฆื‘ื•
15:36
specifically to address the questions of dark matter and dark energy --
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ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขื ื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืฉืืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืžืจ ืืคืœ ื•ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืืคืœื”:
15:40
ground-based telescopes, and there are three space-based telescopes
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ื˜ืœืกืงื•ืคื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืงืจืงืข. ื•ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ื˜ืœืกืงื•ืคื™ื ืฉื™ื”ื™ื• ื‘ื—ืœืœ
15:43
that are in competition right now
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ืžืชืžื•ื“ื“ื™ื ื›ืขืช
15:45
to be launched to investigate dark matter and dark energy.
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ืœืฉื™ื’ื•ืจ ืœืฆื•ืจืš ื—ืงื™ืจืช ื—ื•ืžืจ ืืคืœ ื•ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืืคืœื”.
15:48
So in terms of the big questions:
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ืื–, ื‘ืžื•ื ื—ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืืœื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช:
15:50
what is dark matter? What is dark energy?
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ืžื” ื”ื•ื ื—ื•ืžืจ ืืคืœ? ืžื” ื”ื™ื ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืืคืœื”?
15:52
The big questions facing physics.
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ื”ืฉืืœื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืžื“ื•ืช ื‘ืคื ื™ ื”ืคื™ื–ื™ืงื”.
15:54
And I'm sure you have lots of questions,
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ื•ืื ื™ ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืฉืืœื•ืช,
15:57
which I very much look forward to addressing
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ืฉืขืœื™ื”ืŸ ืื ื™ ืžืฆืคื” ืœื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืก
15:59
over the next 72 hours, while I'm here. Thank you.
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš 72 ื”ืฉืขื•ืช ื”ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช, ื›ืœ ืขื•ื“ ืื ื™ ื›ืืŸ. ืชื•ื“ื”
16:01
(Applause)
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(ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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