How We're Reverse Engineering the Human Brain in the Lab | Sergiu P. Pasca | TED

139,396 views ใƒป 2022-08-29

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ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: Nurit Noy ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Ido Dekkers
00:03
How does the human brain build itself?
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ืื™ืš ื”ืžื•ื— ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ ื‘ื•ื ื” ืืช ืขืฆืžื•?
00:08
How do circuits in the human brain
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ืื™ืš ื”ืžืขื’ืœื™ื ื‘ืžื•ื— ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™
00:10
wire together?
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ืžืชื—ื‘ืจื™ื?
00:12
For instance, how does one tiny neuron in the outer layer of the brain
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ืœืžืฉืœ, ืื™ืš ื ื•ื™ืจื•ืŸ ืงื˜ืŸ ื‘ื—ืœืง ื”ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื—
00:16
send a thin axon all the way to the spinal cord,
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ืฉื•ืœื— ืืงืกื•ืŸ ื“ืงื™ืง ื›ืœ ื”ื“ืจืš ืขื“ ืœืขืžื•ื“ ื”ืฉื“ืจื”,
00:19
find the right neuron
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ืžื•ืฆื ืฉื ืืช ื”ื ื•ื™ืจื•ืŸ ื”ื ื›ื•ืŸ
00:20
and then control muscle contraction
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ื•ืื– ืฉื•ืœื˜ ื‘ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืฉืจื™ืจ
00:22
as we extend a hand and grasp a glass of water?
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ื›ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฉื•ืœื—ื™ื ืืช ื”ื™ื“ ื•ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ื›ื•ืก ืžื™ื?
00:27
I'm here to tell you
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ืื ื™ ื›ืืŸ ืœืกืคืจ ืœื›ื
00:28
that we can finally grow parts of the human brain
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืกื•ืฃ ืกื•ืฃ ืœื’ื“ืœ ื—ืœืงื™ื ืžื”ืžื•ื—
00:31
from any individual
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ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ืื“ื
00:33
and then build functioning human circuits
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ื•ืื– ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืžืขื’ืœื™ื ื—ืฉืžืœื™ื™ื ืื ื•ืฉื™ื™ื
00:35
in a laboratory cell culture dish.
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ื‘ืชืจื‘ื™ืช ืชืื™ื, ื‘ืฆืœื—ืช ืคื˜ืจื™ ื‘ืžืขื‘ื“ื”.
00:39
These clumps of neural tissue are known as brain organoids.
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ื’ื•ืฉื™ื ืืœื• ืฉืœ ืจืงืžืช ืžื•ื— ืฉืžื ืื•ืจื’ื ื•ืื™ื“ื™ื.
00:44
And when we put them together to form circuits, they become โ€œassembloids.โ€
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ื›ืฉืžื—ื‘ืจื™ื ืื•ืชื ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืžืขื’ืœ ื—ืฉืžืœื™, ื”ื ื”ื•ืคื›ื™ื ืœโ€œืืกืžื‘ืœื•ืื™ื“ื™ืโ€œ.
00:49
Assembloids could be key to understanding how the human brain is built.
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ื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžืคืชื— ืœื”ื‘ื ื” ืื™ืš ื”ืžื•ื— ื‘ื ื•ื™.
00:54
Today, most of what we know about the human brain
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ื”ื™ื•ื, ืจื•ื‘ ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืžื•ื— ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™
00:56
comes from studies in animals, typically mice.
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ืžื’ื™ืข ืžืžื—ืงืจื™ื ื‘ื—ื™ื•ืช, ื‘ื“โ€œื› ืขื›ื‘ืจื™ื.
01:00
And while we've learned a lot from these animal brains,
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ืืžื ื ืœืžื“ื ื• ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืžื•ื—ื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื•ืช ื”ืืœื•,
01:04
the characteristics that make the human brain unique,
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ืืš ื”ืชื›ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืžืืคื™ื™ื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืžื•ื— ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™,
01:06
and uniquely susceptible to disease,
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ื•ื’ื•ืจืžื•ืช ืœื• ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืจื’ื™ืฉ ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืœืžื—ืœื•ืช,
01:09
remain mysterious.
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ื ืฉืืจื•ืช ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืชืขืœื•ืžื”.
01:11
Iโ€™m a physician by training and a professor at Stanford,
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ืื ื™ ืจื•ืคื ื‘ื”ื›ืฉืจืชื™ ื•ืคืจื•ืคืกื•ืจ ื‘ืกื˜ื ืคื•ืจื“.
01:14
where my laboratory has been taking unconventional approaches
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ื”ืžืขื‘ื“ื” ืฉืœื™ ืื™ืžืฆื” ื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ืœื ืงื•ื ื‘ื ืฆื™ื•ื ืœื™ื•ืช
01:18
to study how the human brain develops,
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ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื™ืš ืžืชืคืชื— ื”ืžื•ื— ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™,
01:20
how disorders in the human brain arise
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ืื™ืš ืžืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ืžื—ืœื•ืช ื‘ืžื•ื—,
01:23
and find new ways of treatment.
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ื•ืžืฆื™ืืช ื“ืจื›ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืœื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ.
01:26
I think the best way to explain, though, how we do this
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ื”ื“ืจืš ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืื™ืš,
01:30
is through the eyes of one of my patients.
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ื”ื™ื ื“ืจืš ืขื™ื ื™ื• ืฉืœ ืื—ื“ ื”ืคืฆื™ื™ื ื˜ื™ื ืฉืœื™.
01:34
When I opened my lab at Stanford,
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ื›ืฉืจืง ืคืชื—ืชื™ ืืช ื”ืžืขื‘ื“ื” ืฉืœื™ ื‘ืกื˜ื ืคื•ืจื“,
01:36
Eduard, who's on the autism spectrum,
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ืื“ื•ืืจื“, ืฉื ืžืฆื ืขืœ ื”ืกืคืงื˜ืจื•ื ื”ืื•ื˜ื™ืกื˜ื™,
01:38
sent me this drawing
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ืฉืœื— ืœื™ ืฆื™ื•ืจ
01:40
depicting how he thought we were studying brain disorders.
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ื”ืžืชืืจ ืื™ืš ื”ื•ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉืœื•ืžื“ื™ื ืขืœ ืžื—ืœื•ืช ื‘ืžื•ื—.
01:44
Now to paraphrase him, he said,
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ื”ื•ื ืืžืจ ื›ืš:
01:46
"What I think you're doing is you're climbing up a ladder,
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ื ืจืื” ืœื™ ืฉืืชื ืžื˜ืคืกื™ื ืขืœ ืกื•ืœื,
01:49
poking holes in people's brains
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ืขื•ืฉื™ื ื—ื•ืจื™ื ื‘ืžื•ื— ืฉืœ ื”ืื ืฉื™ื
01:51
and then use tiny telescopes to watch neural cells."
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ื•ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ื˜ืœืกืงื•ืคื™ื ื–ืขื™ืจื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืกืชื›ืœ ืขืœ ืชืื™ ื”ืขืฆื‘ื™ืโ€
01:55
Of course, that's not what we do.
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ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืฉื–ื” ืœื ืžื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื.
01:56
So I called him up, explained the process,
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ืื– ืงืจืืชื™ ืœื• ื•ื”ืกื‘ืจืชื™ ืืช ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš,
02:00
and then the next morning he sent me another drawing,
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ื•ื‘ื‘ื•ืงืจ ื”ื‘ื ื”ื•ื ืฉืœื— ืœื™ ืฆื™ื•ืจ ืื—ืจ,
02:02
which I think ended up being a quite accurate representation
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ืฉืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื”ื•ื ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ ื“ื™ ื‘ืžื“ื•ื™ื™ืง
02:05
of the work that we and many others now are doing.
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ืืช ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื•ืจื‘ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืขื•ืฉื™ื ื›ื™ื•ื.
02:08
Again, to paraphrase him, he said,
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ืžื” ืฉื”ื•ื ืืžืจ ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืขืฆื:
02:10
"You're taking skin cells
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โ€œืืชื ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ืชืื™ ืขื•ืจ
02:12
from patients that have specific brain disorders,
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ืžื—ื•ืœื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื• ื‘ืขื™ื” ืžืกื•ื™ื™ืžืช ื‘ืžื•ื—,
02:15
then doing some mumbo jumbo to the cells
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ื•ืื– ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืœืชืื™ื ืื™ื–ื” ื”ื•ืงื•ืก ืคื•ืงื•ืก
02:17
to push them back in time
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืจ ืื•ืชื ื—ื–ืจื” ื‘ื–ืžืŸ
02:18
and turn them into stem cells."
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ื•ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืื•ืชื ืฉื•ื‘ ืœืชืื™ ื’ื–ืขโ€
02:21
And then he knew that stem cells can be coaxed to become any cell type.
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ืชืื™ ื’ื–ืข ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืœื›ืœ ืกื•ื’ ืื—ืจ ืฉืœ ืชืื™ื.
02:25
โ€œSo then youโ€™re taking them and turning them into brain cells
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โ€œื•ืื– ืืชื ื”ื•ืคื›ื™ื ืื•ืชื ืœืชืื™ ืžื•ื—
02:28
that form brain circuits.โ€
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ืฉื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืžืขื’ืœื™ื ื—ืฉืžืœื™ื™ื ื‘ืžื•ื—โ€
02:30
That's right. We can build human brain circuits in a dish.
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ื ื›ื•ืŸ. ืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ื•ื ื™ื ืžืขื’ืœื™ ืžื•ื— ื‘ืฆืœื—ืช.
02:36
How is that possible?
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ืื™ืš ื–ื” ืืคืฉืจื™?
02:38
Building on the hard work of biologists over the past 15 years or so,
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ื‘ื”ืชื‘ืกืก ืขืœ ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื ื‘ 15 ื”ืฉื ื” ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช,
02:43
we can today take any cell type from any individual
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ื”ื™ื•ื ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืงื—ืช ื›ืœ ืชื ืžื›ืœ ืื“ื
02:47
and then push it back in time to turn them into stem cells
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ื•ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืจ ืื•ืชื• ื—ื–ืจื” ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ื•ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืื•ืชื• ืœืชื ื’ื–ืข
02:50
and then guide those stem cells to become any other cell type.
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ื•ืœื”ื ื—ื•ืช ืืช ืชืื™ ื”ื’ื–ืข ื”ืืœื• ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืœื›ืœ ืชื ืื—ืจ.
02:53
We start by asking a patient to provide a small skin sample.
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ืงื•ื“ื ื›ืœ ืžื‘ืงืฉื™ื ืžื”ื—ื•ืœื” ื“ื•ื’ืžื ืงื˜ื ื” ืฉืœ ืขื•ืจ.
02:58
We then take those skin cells,
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ืืช ืชืื™ ื”ืขื•ืจ,
03:01
reprogram them by putting a series of genetic factors
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ืžืชื›ื ืชื™ื ืื•ืชื ืžื—ื“ืฉ ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืคืงื˜ื•ืจื™ื ื’ื ื˜ื™ื™ื
03:05
and push them back in time
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ื•ืžื—ื–ื™ืจื™ื ืื•ืชื ื‘ื–ืžืŸ
03:06
so that those skin cells become stem cells.
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ื›ืš ืฉืชืื™ ื”ืขื•ืจ ื”ื•ืคื›ื™ื ื—ื–ืจื” ืœืชืื™ ื’ื–ืข.
03:10
It's like cellular alchemy.
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ื–ื” ื›ืžื• ืืœื›ื™ืžื™ื” ืชืื™ืช...
03:12
These stem cells have almost magical abilities
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ืœืชืื™ ื”ื’ื–ืข ื”ืืœื• ื™ืฉ ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืงืกื•ืžื•ืช
03:15
to turn into any other cell type.
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ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืœื›ืœ ืกื•ื’ ืื—ืจ ืฉืœ ืชื.
03:18
So what do we do?
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ืื– ืžื” ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื?
03:19
We take the stem cells, we dissociate them,
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ืœื•ืงื—ื™ื ืืช ืชืื™ ื”ื’ื–ืข ื”ืืœื•, ืžืคืจื™ื“ื™ื ืื•ืชื,
03:23
we then aggregate them
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืจื›ื–ื™ื ืื•ืชื
03:24
so that they form spheres or tiny balls of cells.
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ืฉื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื›ื“ื•ืจื•ื ื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืชืื™ื.
03:28
We then take those, move them into a special plate
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ืื– ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืขื‘ื™ืจื™ื ืืช ื”ื›ื“ื•ืจื•ื ื™ื ืœื›ืœื™ ืžื™ื•ื—ื“
03:31
where there is a kind of chemical soup.
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ื‘ื• ื™ืฉ ืžืขื™ืŸ โ€œืžืจืงโ€ ื›ื™ืžื™.
03:34
And that chemical soup will allow them to grow
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ื•ืžืจืง ื›ื™ืžื™ ื–ื” ื™ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื ืœื’ื“ื•ืœ
03:37
and transform and turn into a brain organoid.
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ื•ืœื”ืฉืชื ื•ืช ื•ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืœืื•ืจื’ื ื•ืื™ื“ื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื•ื—.
03:42
By providing different cues, we can turn this brain organoid
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ืขโ€œื™ ื”ืคืงืช ืื•ืชื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื™ื, ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ืœืื•ืจื’ื ื•ืื™ื“ื™ื
03:46
to resemble specific regions of the central nervous system.
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ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืœื—ืœืง ืžืกื•ื™ื™ื ืžืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืขืฆื‘ื™ื.
03:50
For instance, we have a recipe
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ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื, ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืžืชื›ื•ืŸ
03:52
that allows them to become a cerebral cortex,
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ืฉืžื›ื•ื•ืŸ ืื•ืชื ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืœืงืœื™ืคืช ืžื•ื—,
03:54
the outer layer of the brain.
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ื”ืฉื›ื‘ื” ื”ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื—.
03:56
By using a slightly different combination of factors,
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ืขโ€œื™ ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืื•ืชื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื™ื,
03:58
we can turn them into a spinal cord.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืื•ืชื ืœืชืื™ ืขืžื•ื“ ืฉื“ืจื”.
04:01
The secret to this process is careful guidance.
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ื”ืกื•ื“ ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ื”ื ื—ื™ื” ื–ื”ื™ืจื”.
04:05
In the end, they look like this.
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ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ื ื ื™ืจืื™ื ื›ื›ื”.
04:08
Tiny clusters of brain cells at the bottom of a dish.
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ื’ื•ืฉื™ื ืงื˜ื ื˜ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืจืงืžืช ืžื•ื— ื‘ืงืจืงืขื™ืช ื”ื›ืœื™.
04:12
And let me be clear.
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ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ื‘ื”ื™ืจ.
04:14
This are not brains in a jar.
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ื–ื” ืœื ืžื•ื— ื‘ืฆื ืฆื ืช.
04:16
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
04:17
These are parts of the nervous system in a laboratory dish.
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ืืœื• ื—ืœืงื™ื ืฉืœ ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืขืฆื‘ื™ื ื‘ืฆืœื—ืช ืคื˜ืจื™.
04:23
Each of them contains millions of cells,
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ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ืžื›ื™ืœ ืžืœื™ื•ื ื™ ืชืื™ื,
04:26
and we can even listen as they fire electrical signals.
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ื•ืืคืฉืจ ืœืฉืžื•ืข ื›ืฉื”ื ืฉื•ืœื—ื™ื ืื•ืชื•ืช ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื ื™ื™ื.
04:30
(Electrical signals firing)
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(ืงื•ืœ ืฉืœ ืื•ืชื•ืช ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื ื™ื™ื)
04:32
Or we can watch them
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ืื• ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฆืคื•ืช ื‘ื”ื
04:35
as they sparkle with electrical activity.
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ื›ืฉื”ื ื–ื•ื”ืจื™ื ืžืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืœืฉืžืœื™ืช.
04:38
Or we can image inside and watch the cells as they communicate with each other.
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœื“ืžื•ืช ืืช ื”ืคื ื™ื ื•ืœืฆืคื•ืช ื‘ืชืื™ื ืžืชืงืฉืจื™ื.
04:43
Isn't it remarkable to think that just a few months ago
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ืœื ืžื“ื”ื™ื ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืฉืจืง ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืžื” ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื
04:46
these cells were skin cells in a patient,
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ืชืื™ื ืืœื• ื”ื™ื• ืชืื™ ืขื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื•ืœื”,
04:48
and now they are neural cells at the bottom of a dish
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ื•ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื”ื ืชืื™ ืขืฆื‘ื™ื ื‘ืฆืœื—ืช ืคื˜ืจื™
04:51
that we can study at ease.
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ื‘ื ื•ื—ื•ืช.
04:53
(Applause)
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(ืชืฉื•ืื•ืช)
04:54
Thank you.
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ืชื•ื“ื”.
04:59
So with these models of brain growth,
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ืื– ืขื ื”ื“ื’ืžื™ื ื”ืืœื• ืฉืœ ื’ื“ื™ืœืช ืžื•ื—,
05:01
we started wondering: Could we use them to start to understand disease?
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ืชื”ื™ื ื•: ื”ืื ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื”ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื—ืœื•ืช?
05:05
So for instance, we wanted to know,
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ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื, ืจืฆื™ื ื• ืœื“ืขืช,
05:07
could we understand how low oxygen impacts the brains of premature babies?
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ืžื”ื™ ื”ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืฉืœ ืžืขื˜ ืžื“ื™ ื—ืžืฆืŸ ืขืœ ืžื•ื— ืขื•ื‘ืจื™ื?
05:14
So to do this, we took brain organoids and put them in a special incubator.
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ืœืงื—ื ื• ืื•ืจื’ื ื•ืื™ื“ื™ื ื•ืฉืžื ื• ืื•ืชื ื‘ืื™ื ืงื•ื‘ื˜ื•ืจ.
05:21
We then lowered the concentration of oxygen and watched them.
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ืื– ื”ื•ืจื“ื ื• ืืช ืจื™ื›ื•ื– ื”ื—ืžืฆืŸ ื•ืฆืคื™ื ื• ื‘ื”ื.
05:26
We discovered something quite interesting.
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ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื• ืžืฉื”ื• ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ.
05:28
Only one specific cell type was affected by the low oxygen.
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ืจืง ืกื•ื’ ืžืกื•ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืชืื™ื ื ืคื’ืขื• ืžืจื™ื›ื•ื– ื”ื—ืžืฆืŸ.
05:32
That cell type is responsible for the expansion of the human cortex.
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ื”ืกื•ื’ ื”ื–ื” ืื—ืจืื™ ืœื’ื“ื™ืœื” ืฉืœ ืงืœื™ืคืช ื”ืžื•ื—.
05:36
We found exactly how that happens
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ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื• ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืื™ืš ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ืžืชืจื—ืฉ
05:38
and even found the drug that could prevent that process.
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ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ืžืฆืื ื• ืชืจื•ืคื” ืฉืชืžื ืข ืืช ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš.
05:42
These clumps of three-dimensional tissue
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ื’ื•ืฉื™ ื”ืจืงืžื” ื”ืชืœืช ืžื™ืžื“ื™ืช ื”ืืœื•
05:46
can be grown in a dish for years.
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ืžืขื‘ื“ื” ื‘ืžืฉืš ืฉื ื™ื.
05:49
In fact, we've maintained the longest cultures
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ืœืžืขืฉื”,ื”ืชืจื‘ื™ืช ื”ื–ืงื ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื”ื—ื–ืงื ื• ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื
05:52
that have been reported to date, going beyond 800 days.
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ืžื—ื–ื™ืงื” ืžืขืžื“ ื›ื‘ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž-800 ื™ืžื™ื.
05:55
At nine to 10 months, which is the equivalent of birth,
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ื›ืฉื”ืชืื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื‘ื ื™ 9-10 ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื, ื›ืžื• ื‘ื”ืจื™ื•ืŸ,
05:59
they slowly transitioned, and they started to resemble the postnatal brain.
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ื”ื ื”ื—ืœื• ืœืื˜ ืœื”ืฉืชื ื•ืช ื•ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืœืชืื™ ืžื•ื— ื•ืœื“ื™ื.
06:05
We have discovered a brain clock
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ื’ื™ืœื™ื ื• โ€œืฉืขื•ืŸโ€ ืžื•ื—ื™
06:08
which keeps track of time in a dish and outside of the uterus.
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ืฉืขื•ืงื‘ ืื—ืจ ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืขื•ื‘ืจ, ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืจื—ื.
06:13
Understanding the molecular mechanisms that underlie this brain clock
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ื”ื‘ื ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืขื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื” ื‘ืจืžื” ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœืจื™ืช
06:17
could be key to finding new strategies
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ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžืคืชื— ืœืžืฆื™ืืช ื“ืจื›ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช
06:20
to either accelerate or decelerate or rejuvenate human brain cells.
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ืœื”ืื™ืฅ ืื• ืœื”ืื˜ ืื• ืœื”ืฆืขื™ืจ ืชืื™ ืžื•ื—.
06:26
The work that I've shown you so far
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ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืฉื”ืจืืชื™ ืœื›ื ืขื“ ืขื›ืฉื™ื•
06:28
is pioneering not just because of what it teaches us
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ื”ื™ื ื—ืœื•ืฆื™ืช ืœื ืจืง ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืžื” ืฉื”ื™ื ืžืœืžื“ืช ืื•ืชื ื•
06:31
about the human brain,
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ืขืœ ื”ืžื•ื— ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™,
06:32
but also because of the frontiers of ethics.
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ืืœื ื’ื ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื”ื™ื ื ื•ื’ืขืช ื‘ื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืืชื™ืงื”.
06:36
Organoids and assembloids are not full replicas of the human brain.
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ืื•ืจื’ื ื•ืื™ื“ื™ื ื•ืืกืžื‘ืœื•ืื™ื“ื™ื ืื™ื ื ื”ืขืชืง ืžืœื ืฉืœ ืžื•ื— ืื ื•ืฉื™.
06:40
They're not brains in a jar. They're not minibrain.
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ื”ื ืœื ืžื•ื—ื•ืช ื‘ืฆื ืฆื ืช. ื”ื ืื™ื ื ืžื•ื—ื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื™ื.
06:43
They're not some stepping stone to a Frankenstein monster.
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ื”ื ืœื ืชื—ื ื” ื‘ื“ืจืš ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืคืจื ืงื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ ืžืคืœืฆืชื™.
06:47
They have no blood flow,
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ืื™ืŸ ื‘ื”ื ื–ืจื™ืžื” ืฉืœ ื“ื,
06:48
they receive no meaningful inputs and outputs.
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ื”ื ืœื ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ืžื™ื“ืข ื•ืœื ืฉื•ืœื—ื™ื ื”ื•ืจืื•ืช.
06:51
But at one point, they may become more complex.
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืจื’ืข ืื—ื“ ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืœืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ.
06:55
At one point, they may receive sensory input.
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ื‘ืจื’ืข ืžืกื•ื™ื™ื ื”ื ื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœืงื‘ืœ ืžื™ื“ืข ืžื”ื—ื•ืฉื™ื.
06:58
So as the science advances,
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ืื– ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื”ืžื“ืข ืžืชืงื“ื,
07:00
we in the scientific community have been very careful
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ืงื”ื™ืœื” ื”ืžื“ืขื™ืช ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžืื•ื“ ื–ื”ื™ืจื™ื
07:03
about discussing what are some of the ethical questions,
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ื•ื“ื ื• ืžื” ื”ืŸ ื”ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช ื”ืืชื™ื•ืช ืฉืขื•ืœื•ืช,
07:06
the societal implications and potential regulations.
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ืžื”ืŸ ื”ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื•ืช ื•ื”ืจื’ื•ืœืฆื™ื” ื”ื“ืจื•ืฉื”.
07:11
Most of the work that Iโ€™ve shown you so far
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ืจื•ื‘ ืžื” ืฉื”ืจืืชื™ ืœื›ื ืขื“ ืขื›ืฉื™ื•
07:13
has been in one specific brain region.
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ื”ื™ื ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืฉื ืขืฉืชื” ืขืœ ืื–ื•ืจ ืžืกื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืžื•ื—.
07:16
But to really understand circuits,
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ืืš ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืœืขื•ืžืง ืžืขื’ืœื™ื,
07:18
we actually need to build more complicated brain circuits.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืžืขื’ืœื™ ืžื•ื— ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื™ื.
07:22
And so to do this, six years ago,
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ืื– ืœืคื ื™ 6 ืฉื ื™ื,
07:25
we came up with a new approach to build human circuits
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ื”ืžืฆืื ื• ืฉื™ื˜ื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ืœื‘ื ื™ื™ืช ืžืขื’ืœื™ ืžื•ื— ืื ื•ืฉื™ื™ื.
07:28
called an assembloid.
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ื‘ืฉื ืืกืžื‘ืœื•ืื™ื“ื™ื.
07:30
Assembloids are essentially blocks of tissue
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ืืกืžื‘ืœื•ืื™ื“ื™ื ื”ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ื‘ืœื•ืงื™ื ืฉืœ ืจืงืžืช ืชืื™ื
07:33
that we build in a dish from multiple organoids put together.
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ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืžืขื‘ื“ื” ืžื”ืจื‘ื” ืื•ืจื’ื ื•ืื™ื“ื™ื.
07:38
When we put two brain organoids together,
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ื›ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฉืžื™ื ืฉื ื™ ืื•ืจื’ื ื•ืื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ื— ื‘ื™ื—ื“,
07:41
we discovered something really fascinating.
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ืžืชื’ืœื” ืœื ื• ืžืฉื”ื• ืžื“ื”ื™ื.
07:45
First, they fused to each other.
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ืงื•ื“ื ื›ืœ, ื”ื ืžืชื—ื‘ืจื™ื ื–ื” ืœื–ื”.
07:48
But then they started to communicate,
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ื•ืื– ื”ื ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ืœืชืงืฉืจ ื‘ื™ื ื”ื,
07:51
and brain cells from one side
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ื•ืชืื™ ืžื•ื— ืžืฆื“ ืื—ื“
07:54
started to slowly migrate onto the other side
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ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ืœืื˜ ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืœืฆื“ ืฉื ื™
07:57
and form circuits,
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ื•ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืžืขื’ืœื™ื ื—ืฉืžืœื™ื™ื,
07:58
much like they would in the actual brain.
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ื‘ืขืจืš ื›ืžื• ืฉื”ื™ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื ื‘ืžื•ื— ืืžื™ืชื™.
08:00
In fact, we can even watch them live as they move from one side to the other.
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ืœืžืขืฉื” ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ืชื–ื•ื–ื” ืขืฆืžื”.
08:05
I still remember how we were in the lab in absolute awe
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ืื ื™ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื–ื•ื›ืจ ืืช ื”ื”ืชืจื’ืฉื•ืช ืฉืœื ื• ื‘ืžืขื‘ื“ื”
08:08
when we saw for the first time
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ื›ืฉืจืื™ื ื• ื‘ืคืขื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื”
08:10
how human cells undergo this peculiar jumping behavior.
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ืืช ื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ื™ื ืžืชื ื”ื’ื™ื ื›ืš.
08:14
This is all fascinating, but what is it actually good for?
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ื›ืœ ื–ื” ืžืจืชืง ืื‘ืœ ืœึฐืžึธื” ื–ื” ื˜ื•ื‘?
08:18
Dysfunction in the human brain causes brain disorders,
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ืื™ื–ื•ืจื™ื ืœื ืžืชืคืงื™ื ื‘ืžื— ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ืœืžื—ืœื•ืช ื‘ืžื•ื—,
08:22
such as autism and schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease,
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ืžื—ืœื•ืช ื›ืžื• ืื•ื˜ื™ื–ื, ืกื›ื™ื–ื•ืคืจื™ื”, ืืœืฆื”ื™ื™ืžืจ ื•ืขื•ื“,
08:25
devastating conditions that are poorly understood.
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ืžืฆื‘ื™ื ื”ืจืกื ื™ื™ื ืฉื›ืžืขื˜ ืœื ืžื•ื‘ื ื™ื ืœืžื“ืข.
08:28
Nearly one in five individuals suffers from a psychiatric disease.
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ื›ืžืขื˜ 1 ืžื›ืœ 5 ืื ืฉื™ื ื—ื•ืœื” ื‘ืžื—ืœื” ืคืกื™ื›ื™ืื˜ืจื™ืช.
08:32
What is even more striking
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ืžื” ืฉืขื•ื“ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื“ื”ื™ื
08:34
is that the lowest success rate for finding new drugs
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ื–ื” ืฉืื—ื•ื– ื”ื ืžื•ืš ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืžืฆื™ืืช ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช
08:37
is in psychiatry, out of all the branches of medicine,
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ื ืžืฆื ื‘ืคืกื›ื™ืื˜ืจื™ื”, ืคื—ื•ืช ืžื‘ื›ืœ ืขื ืคื™ ื”ืจืคื•ืื”,
08:40
likely because until now we couldn't really access the human brain.
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ื›ื ืจืื” ื›ื™ ืขื“ ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืœื ื”ื™ืชื” ืœื ื• ืžืžืฉ ื’ื™ืฉื” ืœืžื•ื— ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™.
08:46
Using brain organoids and assembloids,
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ืขโ€œื™ ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืื•ืจื’ื ื•ืื™ื“ื™ื ื•ืืกืžื‘ืœื•ืื™ื“ื™ื,
08:50
we can create avatars for a patient's brain development
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ืืคืฉืจ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื“ืžื•ืช ื•ื™ืจื˜ื•ืืœื™ืช ืฉืœ ืžื•ื— ื”ื—ื•ืœื”
08:54
and then use those to dissect the molecular mechanism of disease.
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ื•ืขืœื™ื” ืœื ืชื— ื•ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ืžื›ื ื™ื–ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžื—ืœื”.
08:59
Let me give you one example.
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ืืชืŸ ืœื›ื ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืื—ืช,
09:01
As you have seen,
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ื›ืžื• ืฉืจืื™ืชื,
09:03
assembloids can be used
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ืืกืžื‘ืœื•ืื™ื“ื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฉืžืฉ
09:05
to model this healthy jumping behavior of neurons.
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ืœืžื“ืœ ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ืงื•ืคืฆื ื™ืช ื‘ืจื™ืื” ืฉืœ ื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื.
09:09
So what we did is we created assembloids from patients with Timothy syndrome,
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ืื– ื™ืฆืจื ื• ืืกืžื‘ืœื•ืื™ื“ื™ื ืžื—ื•ืœื” ื‘ืกื™ื ื“ืจื•ื ื˜ื™ืžื•ืชื™.
09:14
which is a rare genetic disease associated with autism and epilepsy.
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ืžื—ืœื” ื’ื ื˜ื™ืช ื ื“ื™ืจื” ืฉืงืฉื•ืจื” ืœืื•ื˜ื™ื–ื ื•ืืคื™ืœืคืกื™ื”.
09:19
When we looked inside the assembloids, we noticed something remarkable.
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ื›ืฉื”ืกืชื›ืœื ื• ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืืกืžื‘ืœื•ืื™ื“ื™ื, ืจืื™ื ื• ืžืฉื”ื• ื™ื•ืฆื ื“ื•ืคืŸ.
09:23
The cells were moving much faster,
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ืชื ื•ืขืชื ืฉืœ ื”ืชืื™ื ื”ื™ืชื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื”ื™ืจื”,
09:27
but every time they would jump, they would jump a shorter distance.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืงืคื™ืฆื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืงืฆืจื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ.
ืื– ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ื ืฉืืจื™ื ืžืื—ื•ืจ.
09:30
So in the end, they would be left behind.
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09:32
Over the past six years in extensive studies,
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ื‘ืฉืฉ ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืžื—ืงืจ ื™ืกื•ื“ื™,
09:35
we've actually dissected the molecular mechanism of this defect
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ื ื™ืชื—ื ื• ืืช ื”ืžื›ื ื™ื–ื ื”ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœืจื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื—ืœื”
09:38
and even found ways of restoring it.
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ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ืžืฆืื ื• ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืœืจืคื ืื•ืชื”.
09:41
And we're excited to be moving towards a potential therapeutic avenue
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืชืจื’ืฉื™ื ืœื ื•ืข ืœืขื‘ืจ ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ืคื•ื˜ื ืฆื™ืืœื™
09:44
in the next year or so.
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ื‘ืฉื ื” ื”ืงืจื•ื‘ื” ื‘ืขืจืš.
09:46
(Applause)
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(ืชืฉื•ืื•ืช)
09:50
The premise of organoids and assembloids
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ื”ืชืงื•ื•ื” ืœื’ื‘ื™ ืื•ืจื’ื ื•ืื™ื“ื™ื ื•ืืกืžื‘ืœื•ืื™ื“ื™ื
09:53
is that they will slowly allow us to gain new insights
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ื”ื™ื ืฉื”ื ื™ืขื–ืจื• ืœื ื• ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื—ื“ืฉื”
09:57
into the hidden biology of the human brain.
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ืืช ื”ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื”ื—ื‘ื•ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื— ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™.
10:00
And by doing so,
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ื‘ืขืฉื•ืชื ื›ืš,
10:01
they could revolutionize the way we think about human brain development, evolution,
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ื”ื ื™ืขืฉื• ืžื”ืคื›ื” ื‘ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืขืœ ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ื—, ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื”,
10:05
function and disease.
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ืชืคืงื•ื“ื• ื•ื”ืžื—ืœื•ืช ืฉืœื•.
10:08
So what's next?
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ืื– ืžื” ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื‘ื?
10:09
Well, to really be able to gain insight into more complex brain disorders,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืŸ ืœืขื•ืžืง ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืžื•ื—,
10:14
we need to build more complex circuits.
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืžืขื’ืœื™ื ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ.
10:17
So in the last minute, let me show you
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ื‘ืจื’ืข ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ, ื”ืจืฉื• ืœื™ ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ืœื›ื
10:20
the most complicated circuit we have built to date.
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ืืช ื”ืžืขื’ืœ ื”ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื‘ื ื™ื ื• ืขื“ ื”ื™ื•ื.
10:24
The circuit that controls voluntary movement.
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ื”ืžืขื’ืœ ืฉืฉื•ืœื˜ ื‘ืชื ื•ืขื” ืจืฆื•ื ื™ืช.
10:28
To do this, we've created three organoids.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืื•ืชื• ื™ืฆืจื ื• ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืื•ืจื’ื ื•ืื™ื“ื™ื.
10:31
One, shown here in purple, that resembles the cortex.
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ื”ืื—ื“, ื”ืฆื‘ื•ืข ืคื” ื‘ืกื’ื•ืœ, ื“ื•ืžื” ืœืงืœื™ืคืช ื”ืžื•ื—.
10:35
One, in yellow, that resembles the spinal cord,
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ื”ืฉื ื™, ื‘ืฆื”ื•ื‘, ื“ื•ืžื” ืœืขืžื•ื“ ื”ืฉื“ืจื”,
10:37
and one, in red, that resembles human muscle.
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ื•ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™, ื‘ืื“ื•ื, ืฉื“ื•ืžื” ืœืฉืจื™ืจ ืื ื•ืฉื™.
10:40
We then put them together and watched them fuse
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ื”ึดื ึทึผื—ึฐื ื•ึผ ืื•ืชื ื‘ื™ื—ื“ ื•ืฆืคื™ื ื• ื‘ื”ื ืžืชื—ื‘ืจื™ื
10:43
and noticed something really spectacular.
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ื•ืฉืžื ื• ืœื‘ ืœืžืฉื”ื• ืžื“ื”ื™ื.
10:46
Neurons on the cortical side started extending axons,
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ื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื ืžืงืœื™ืคืช ื”ืžื•ื— ืฉืœื—ื• ืืงืกื•ื ื™ื,
10:50
find spinal motor neurons in the spinal side,
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ืฉืžืฆืื• ื ื•ื™ืจื•ื ื™ื ื‘โ€œืขืžื•ื“ ื”ืฉื“ืจื”โ€œ,
10:52
connect with them,
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ื•ื”ืชื—ื‘ืจื• ืืœื™ื”ื,
10:54
and then those farther project and connect to muscle.
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ื•ื”ืžืฉื™ื›ื• ื•ื”ืชื—ื‘ืจื• ืœโ€œืฉืจื™ืจโ€œ.
10:58
When we put a light stimulus on the cortical site,
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ื›ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืžื’ืจื™ื ืืช โ€œืงืœื™ืคืช ื”ืžื•ื—โ€ ืขื ืื•ืจ,
11:02
we noticed the muscle on the opposite side contract.
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ื”โ€œืฉืจื™ืจโ€ ื‘ืฆื“ ื”ืฉื ื™ ืžืชื›ื•ื•ืฅ.
11:07
We have modeled for the first time a human cortical motor pathway.
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ื™ืฆืจื ื• ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžื•ื“ืœ ืฉืœ ืžืขื’ืœ ืžื•ื—-ืฉืจื™ืจ ืื ื•ืฉื™.
11:12
(Applause)
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(ืชืฉื•ืื•ืช)
11:19
And let me be clear.
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ื•ืื ื™ ืื•ืžืจ ื‘ื‘ืจื•ืจ,
11:22
These cells find each other.
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ื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื”ืชื—ื‘ืจื• ื‘ืขืฆืžื.
11:26
Unlike in engineering, we don't have a master plan,
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ืฉืœื ื›ืžื• ื‘ื”ื ื“ืกื”, ืื™ืŸ ืœื ื• ืชื›ื ื™ืช ืื‘.
11:29
we don't provide a plan because the human brain builds itself.
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ืœื ืžืกืคืงื™ื ืชื›ื ื™ืช ื›ื™ ืžื•ื— ื”ืื“ื ื‘ื•ื ื” ืืช ืขืฆืžื•.
11:34
And then in itself, it's a remarkable opportunity
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ื•ืื– ืœื›ืฉืขืฆืžื”, ื–ื• ื”ื–ื“ืžื ื•ืช ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื”
11:36
to try to reverse engineer
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ืœื ืกื•ืช ืœื”ื ื“ืก ืœืื—ื•ืจ
11:38
what are some of the steps that underlie human brain development?
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ืžื” ื”ื ื”ืฉืœื‘ื™ื ื”ืžื’ื“ื™ืจื™ื ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ืžื•ื— ืื ื•ืฉื™?
11:43
I know that this all sounds science fiction,
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ืื ื™ ื™ื•ื“ืข ืฉื›ืœ ื–ื” ื ืฉืžืข ื›ืžื• ืžื“ืข ื‘ื“ื™ื•ื ื™,
11:45
but we now do this routinely in the lab.
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืืช ื–ื” ื›ืœ ื™ื•ื ื‘ืžืขื‘ื“ื”.
11:48
We have derived thousands and thousands of organoids and assembloids
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ื™ืฆืจื ื• ื›ื‘ืจ ืืœืคื™ ืื•ืจื’ื ื•ืื™ื“ื™ื ื•ืืกืžื‘ืœื•ืื™ื“ื™ื
ืžืชืื™ื ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ืžื—ืœื•ืช ื ืคืฉ ื•ืขืฆื‘ื™ื,
11:51
from patients with various neuropsychiatric diseases,
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11:54
including, for instance,
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ื›ื•ืœืœ, ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื,
11:55
infecting them with viruses such as polio virus
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ืœื”ื“ื‘ื™ืง ืื•ืชื ื‘ื•ื™ืจื•ืกื™ื ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืคื•ืœื™ื•
11:57
to understand how diseases arise.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื™ืš ื”ืžื—ืœื•ืช ื ื•ืฆืจื•ืช.
11:59
The statistician George Box famously said,
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ื”ืกื˜ื˜ื™ืกื˜ืงืื™ ื”ืžืคื•ืจืกื ื’โ€˜ื•ืจื’โ€™ ื‘ืงืก ืืžืจ,
12:04
"All models are wrong, but some are useful."
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โ€œื›ืœ ื”ืžื•ื“ืœื™ื ื”ื ืœื ื ื›ื•ื ื™ื ืื‘ืœ ื—ืœืงื ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ืโ€
12:08
(Laughter)
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
12:11
I do the work that I do
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ืื ื™ ืขื•ืฉื” ืืช ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ื–ื•
12:13
because the promise and hope of brain assembloids and organoids
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ื›ื™ ื”ืชืงื•ื•ื” ืฉืืกืžื‘ืœื•ืื™ื“ื™ื ื•ืื•ืจื’ื ื•ืื™ื“ื™ื
12:17
is that by allowing us to recreate circuits of the human brain,
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ื”ื™ื ืฉื‘ืืคืฉืจื ืœื ื• ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืžืขื’ืœื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื•ื— ืื ื•ืฉื™,
12:20
we will gain new insights into human biology.
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ื ืงื‘ืœ ืชื‘ื•ื ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ื‘ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช.
12:24
And this in itself will open a new era in the treatment of brain disorders.
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ื•ื–ื” ื™ืชื—ื™ืœ ืขื™ื“ืŸ ื—ื“ืฉ ื‘ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื‘ืžื—ืœื•ืช ืขืฆื‘ื™ื.
12:29
Thank you.
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ืชื•ื“ื”
12:30
(Applause)
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(ืชืฉื•ืื•ืช)
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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