How close are we to powering the world with nuclear fusion? - George Zaidan

267,883 views ใƒป 2024-06-27

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: zeeva livshitz ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Ido Dekkers
00:06
In the time it takes to snap your fingers,
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ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืœื•ืงื— ืœื”ืงื™ืฉ ื‘ืืฆื‘ืขื•ืช,
00:08
the Sun releases enough energy to power our entire civilization for 4,500 years.
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ื”ืฉืžืฉ ืžืฉื—ืจืจืช ืžืกืคื™ืง ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื ื™ืข ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื•ื™ืœื™ื–ืฆื™ื” ืฉืœื ื• ื‘ืžืฉืš 4,500 ืฉื ื”.
00:15
So naturally, scientists and engineers have been working to build
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ืื– ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื˜ื‘ืขื™, ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ื•ืžื”ื ื“ืกื™ื ืคืขืœื• ืœื‘ื ื•ืช
00:19
a miniature star here on Earth... to plug into our power grid.
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ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืžื™ื ื™ืื˜ื•ืจื™ ื›ืืŸ ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ... ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืชื—ื‘ืจ ืœืจืฉืช ื”ื—ืฉืžืœ ืฉืœื ื•.
00:23
And the thing is, we already kind of have.
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ื•ื”ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ื•ื, ืฉื›ื‘ืจ ืื™ื›ืฉื”ื• ื™ืฉ ืœื ื•.
00:26
It just doesnโ€™t look like a tiny star floating in a lab.
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ื–ื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืœื ื ืจืื” ื›ืžื• ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื–ืขื™ืจ ืฉืฆืฃ ื‘ืžืขื‘ื“ื”.
00:30
The stars are made of an almost incomprehensible number of particles,
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ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื ืžืžืกืคืจ ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื ื›ืžืขื˜ ื‘ืœืชื™ ืžื•ื‘ืŸ,
00:34
which gravity compresses into a super dense core.
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ืฉื›ื•ื— ื”ืžืฉื™ื›ื” ื“ื•ื—ืก ืœืœื™ื‘ื” ืกื•ืคืจ ืฆืคื•ืคื”.
00:37
This core is hot and dense enough to force atomic nuclei together,
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ืœื™ื‘ื” ื–ื• ื—ืžื” ื•ืฆืคื•ืคื” ืžืกืคื™ืง ื›ื“ื™ ืœืืœืฅ ื’ืจืขื™ื ื™ ืื˜ื•ื ื™ื—ื“,
00:42
forming larger, heavier nuclei in a process known as fusion.
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ืฉื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื’ืจืขื™ื ื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื•ื›ื‘ื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื” ื”ื™ืชื•ืš.
00:46
The reverse process, where one atom splits into two, is called fission.
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ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื”ืคื•ืš, ืฉื‘ื• ืื˜ื•ื ืื—ื“ ืžืชืคืฆืœ ืœืฉื ื™ื™ื, ื ืงืจื ื‘ื™ืงื•ืข.
00:51
In both processes, the mass of the end products is slightly less
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ื‘ืฉื ื™ ื”ืชื”ืœื™ื›ื™ื, ื”ืžืกื” ืฉืœ ืชื•ืฆืจื™ ื”ืงืฆื” ืžืขื˜ ืคื—ื•ืชื”
00:55
than the mass of the initial atoms.
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ืžืžืกืช ื”ืื˜ื•ืžื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื™ื.
00:56
But that lost mass doesnโ€™t disappearโ€”
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืžืกื” ื”ืื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ื–ื• ืœื ื ืขืœืžืช -
00:59
itโ€™s converted to energy according to Einsteinโ€™s famous equation.
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ื”ื™ื ืžื•ืžืจืช ืœืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืขืœ ืคื™ ื”ืžืฉื•ื•ืื” ื”ืžืคื•ืจืกืžืช ืฉืœ ืื™ื™ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ.
01:03
And since cยฒ is such a massive number,
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ื•ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉ- cยฒ ื”ื•ื ืžืกืคืจ ื›ื” ืขืฆื•ื,
01:05
both fission and fusion generate a lot of energy.
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ื’ื ื‘ื™ืงื•ืข ื•ื’ื ื”ื™ืชื•ืš ืžื™ื™ืฆืจื™ื ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืจื‘ื”.
01:10
Fusion in our Sun mostly produces helium nuclei.
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ื”ื™ืชื•ืš ื‘ืฉืžืฉ ืฉืœื ื• ืžื™ื™ืฆืจ ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื’ืจืขื™ื ื™ ื”ืœื™ื•ื.
01:13
In the most common pathway, two protons fuse to form a deuterium nucleus,
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ื‘ืžืกืœื•ืœ ื”ื ืคื•ืฅ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ, ืฉื ื™ ืคืจื•ื˜ื•ื ื™ื ืžืชืžื–ื’ื™ื ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื’ืจืขื™ืŸ ื“ืื•ื˜ืจื™ื•ื,
01:18
which then fuses with another proton to form a helium-3 nucleus,
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ืืฉืจ ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ืžืชืžื–ื’ ืขื ืคืจื•ื˜ื•ืŸ ืื—ืจ ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื’ืจืขื™ืŸ ื”ืœื™ื•ื -3,
01:22
which then fuses with another helium-3 nucleus to form a helium-4 nucleus.
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ืืฉืจ ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ืžืชืžื–ื’ ืขื ื’ืจืขื™ืŸ ื”ืœื™ื•ื -3 ืื—ืจ ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื’ืจืขื™ืŸ ื”ืœื™ื•ื -4.
01:28
But thereโ€™s a catchโ€” that first step is incredibly rare.
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ืžื™ืœื›ื•ื“ - ืฆืขื“ ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื–ื” ื ื“ื™ืจ ืœื”ืคืœื™ื.
01:32
Only 1 in 100 septillion collisions between protons
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ืจืง 1 ืžื›ืœ 100 ืกืคื˜ื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืชื ื’ืฉื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื™ืŸ ืคืจื•ื˜ื•ื ื™ื
01:36
results in a deuterium nucleus.
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ื”ืชื•ืฆืื” ื”ื™ื ื’ืจืขื™ืŸ ื“ืื•ื˜ืจื™ื•ื.
01:38
In the Sun this isnโ€™t a problem because there are so many protons
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ื‘ืฉืžืฉ ื–ื• ืœื ื‘ืขื™ื” ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื™ืฉ ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื”ืจื‘ื” ืคืจื•ื˜ื•ื ื™ื
01:41
that even a reaction this rare happens all the time.
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ืฉืืคื™ืœื• ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ื ื“ื™ืจื” ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืžืชืจื—ืฉืช ื›ืœ ื”ื–ืžืŸ.
01:45
But on Earth, researchers rely on a more easily reproducible reaction,
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ืืš ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ, ื”ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืžืกืชืžื›ื™ื ืขืœ ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ื”ื ื™ืชื ืช ืœืฉื—ื–ื•ืจ ื‘ืงืœื•ืช ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ,
01:49
where a deuterium nucleus fuses with a tritium nucleus
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ืฉื‘ื” ื’ืจืขื™ืŸ ื“ืื•ื˜ืจื™ื•ื ืžืชืžื–ื’ ืขื ื’ืจืขื™ืŸ ื˜ืจื™ื˜ื™ื•ื
01:52
to form a helium-4 nucleus and a neutron.
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ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื’ืจืขื™ืŸ ื”ืœื™ื•ื-4 ื•ื ื•ื™ื˜ืจื•ืŸ.
01:56
Weโ€™ve actually been doing reactions like this one inside particle accelerators
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืœืžืขืฉื” ืžื™ื™ืฆืจื™ื ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื›ืžื• ืืœื” ื‘ืชื•ืš ืžืื™ืฆื™ ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื
02:00
since the 1930s.
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ืžืื– ืฉื ื•ืช ื”ืฉืœื•ืฉื™ื.
02:02
But these accelerators are not designed to harness the energy this reaction releases.
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ืื‘ืœ ืžืื™ืฆื™ื ืืœื” ืœื ื ื•ืขื“ื• ืœืจืชื•ื ืืช ื”ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืฉืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ื–ื• ืžืฉื—ืจืจืช.
02:07
Rather, theyโ€™re used to generate neutrons
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื–ืืช, ื”ื ืžืฉืžืฉื™ื ืœื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื ื•ื™ื˜ืจื•ื ื™ื
02:09
for a variety of scientific and military purposes.
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ืœืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืžื˜ืจื•ืช ืžื“ืขื™ื•ืช ื•ืฆื‘ืื™ื•ืช.
02:12
Whereas if we want to use fusion to produce limitless energy,
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ื•ืื™ืœื• ืื ื ืจืฆื” ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื”ื™ืชื•ืš ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื‘ืœืชื™ ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœืช,
02:16
weโ€™d need a device that can harness the energy released,
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ื ืฆื˜ืจืš ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืจืชื•ื ืืช ื”ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื”ืžืฉืชื—ืจืจืช
02:18
channel enough of that energy back into the device to keep the reaction going,
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ืœืชืขืœ ืžืกืคื™ืง ืžื”ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื”ื–ื• ื‘ื—ื–ืจื” ืœืžื›ืฉื™ืจ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš ืืช ื”ืชื’ื•ื‘ื”
02:23
and then send the rest out to our power grid.
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ื•ืื– ืœืฉืœื•ื— ืืช ื”ืฉืืจ ืœืจืฉืช ื”ื—ืฉืžืœ ืฉืœื ื•.
02:26
And for that job, we need a nuclear fusion reactor.
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ื•ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ื–ื•, ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ื›ื•ืจ ื”ื™ืชื•ืš ื’ืจืขื™ื ื™.
02:30
Like a particle accelerator, a reactor would generate helium nuclei and neutrons.
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ื›ืžื• ืžืื™ืฅ ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื, ื›ื•ืจ ื™ื™ืฆืจ ื’ืจืขื™ื ื™ ื”ืœื™ื•ื ื•ื ื•ื™ื˜ืจื•ื ื™ื.
02:35
But that reaction would happen in a superhot core
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ืื‘ืœ ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ื–ื• ืชืชืจื—ืฉ ื‘ืœื™ื‘ื” ืกื•ืคืจ-ื—ืžื”
02:38
and the resulting neutrons would shoot outward
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ื•ื”ื ื•ื™ื˜ืจื•ื ื™ื ืฉื ื•ืฆืจื• ื™ื™ืจื• ื”ื—ื•ืฆื”
02:40
to heat up a layer of lithium metal.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ืžื ืฉื›ื‘ื” ืฉืœ ืžืชื›ืช ืœื™ืชื™ื•ื.
02:42
That heat would then boil water,
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ื”ื—ื•ื ื”ื–ื” ืžืจืชื™ื— ืžื™ื
02:44
generating steam to run turbines and produce electricity.
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ื•ื™ื•ืฆืจ ืงื™ื˜ื•ืจ ืœื”ืคืขืœืช ื˜ื•ืจื‘ื™ื ื•ืช ื•ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื—ืฉืžืœ.
02:47
Meanwhile, the helium nuclei would stay in the core
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ื‘ื™ื ืชื™ื™ื, ื’ืจืขื™ื ื™ ื”ื”ืœื™ื•ื ื™ื™ืฉืืจื• ื‘ืœื™ื‘ื”
02:51
and slam into other nuclei to keep the reaction goingโ€”
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ื•ื™ื’ืจืžื• ืœื’ืจืขื™ื ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืขืœ ื”ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” -
02:54
and the electricity flowing.
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ื•ืœื–ืจื™ืžืช ื”ื—ืฉืžืœ.
02:56
This tech has many practical challenges,
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ืœื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื–ื• ื™ืฉ ืืชื’ืจื™ื ืžืขืฉื™ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื,
02:58
including how to confine a swirling mass of million-degree matter.
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ื›ื•ืœืœ ื›ื™ืฆื“ ืœื”ื’ื‘ื™ืœ ืžืกื” ืžืกืชื—ืจืจืช ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืžืจ ืฉืœ ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืžืขืœื•ืช.
03:02
But the biggest hurdle is achieving what's called ignition.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืžื›ืฉื•ืœ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ื•ื ื”ืฉื’ืช ืžื” ืฉื ืงืจื ื”ืฆืชื”.
03:06
An energy technology is only commercially viable
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ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ืช ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื”ื™ื ื‘ืช ืงื™ื™ืžื ืžืกื—ืจื™ืช
03:08
if it puts out more energy than it uses.
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ืจืง ืื ื”ื™ื ืžื•ืฆื™ืื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืžืžื” ืฉื”ื™ื ืžืฉืชืžืฉืช.
03:11
And a fusion reactor needs a lot of energy to get the core hot enough
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ื•ื›ื•ืจ ื”ื™ืชื•ืš ื–ืงื•ืง ืœื”ืจื‘ื” ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ืžื ืืช ื”ืœื™ื‘ื” ืžืกืคื™ืง
03:15
for fusion to occur.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื”ื”ื™ืชื•ืš ื™ืชืจื—ืฉ.
03:16
So thereโ€™s a tipping point:
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ืื– ื™ืฉ ื ืงื•ื“ืช ืžืคื ื”:
03:18
a moment when the fuel is hot enough to start the reaction
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ืจื’ืข ืฉื‘ื• ื”ื“ืœืง ื—ื ืžืกืคื™ืง ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืชื’ื•ื‘ื”
03:21
and release more energy than is needed to reach and maintain that temperature.
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ื•ืœืฉื—ืจืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืžืžื” ืฉื ื“ืจืฉ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ื•ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืขืœ ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ื”ื–ื•.
03:26
This is ignition.
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ื–ื• ื”ืฆืชื”.
03:27
Stars reach ignition under the force of huge amounts of gravity,
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ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืœื”ืฆืชื” ืชื—ืช ื›ื•ื— ืฉืœ ื›ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื›ื•ื— ื”ื›ื‘ื™ื“ื” ื”ืขืฆื•ืžื•ืช,
03:31
but this approach is impossible on Earth
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ืืš ื’ื™ืฉื” ื–ื• ืื™ื ื” ืืคืฉืจื™ืช ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ
03:33
since youโ€™d need thousands of times the mass of, well, the entire Earth.
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ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืชื–ื“ืงืง ืœืืœืคื™ ืคืขืžื™ื ืžืžืกืช ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ื›ื•ืœื•.
03:38
So researchers typically rely on vast arrays of lasers,
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ืื– ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืžืกืชืžื›ื™ื ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืขืœ ืžืขืจื›ื™ื ืขืฆื•ืžื™ื ืฉืœ ืœื™ื™ื–ืจื™ื,
03:41
or methods that combine magnets with high energy particles
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ืื• ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ื”ืžืฉืœื‘ื•ืช ืžื’ื ื˜ื™ื ืขื ื—ืœืงื™ืงื™ื ื‘ืขืœื™ ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื”
03:45
or electromagnetic waves similar to those in your microwave oven.
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ืื• ื’ืœื™ื ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ืžื’ื ื˜ื™ื™ื ื”ื“ื•ืžื™ื ืœืืœื” ื‘ืชื ื•ืจ ื”ืžื™ืงืจื•ื’ืœ ืฉืœื›ื.
03:49
In 2022, scientists at the US National Ignition Facility
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ื‘ืฉื ืช 2022, ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ื‘ืžืชืงืŸ ื”ื”ืฆืชื” ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ ื‘ืืจื”"ื‘
03:52
demonstrated ignition for the first time ever,
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ื”ื“ื’ื™ืžื• ื”ืฆืชื” ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืื™ ืคืขื,
03:55
using 192 lasers to heat deuterium and tritium to 100 million degrees.
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ืชื•ืš ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ -192 ืœื™ื™ื–ืจื™ื ืœื—ื™ืžื•ื ื“ืื•ื˜ืจื™ื•ื ื•ื˜ืจื™ื˜ื™ื•ื ืœ -100 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืžืขืœื•ืช.
04:02
While this was a huge step forward,
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืฆืขื“ ืขื ืง ืงื“ื™ืžื”,
04:04
weโ€™re still a ways off from a self-sustaining, long-running reactor
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืจื—ื•ืงื™ื ืžื›ื•ืจ ืฉืžืงื™ื™ื ืืช ืขืฆืžื• ื•ืคื•ืขืœ ืœืื•ืจืš ื–ืžืŸ
04:08
that produces more energy than it uses.
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ืฉืžื™ื™ืฆืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ืžืžื” ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื”.
04:11
But once operational, these relatively small reactors could power a city
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉื”ื ื™ืคืขืœื•, ื”ื›ื•ืจื™ื ื”ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื™ื—ืกื™ืช ื”ืœืœื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื ื™ืข ืขื™ืจ
04:14
of a million people for a year with just two pickup trucks of fuel.
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ืฉืœ ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ื‘ืžืฉืš ืฉื ื” ืขื ืฉื ื™ ื˜ื ื“ืจื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“ ืฉืœ ื“ืœืง.
04:19
Today, youโ€™d have to burn roughly 3 million tons of coal
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ื”ื™ื•ื, ืชืฆื˜ืจื›ื• ืœืฉืจื•ืฃ ื‘ืขืจืš 3 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื˜ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืคื—ื
04:23
to produce that much energy.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื”ืจื‘ื” ืื ืจื’ื™ื”.
04:25
That is the promise of fusion:
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ื–ื• ื”ื”ื‘ื˜ื—ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืชื•ืš:
04:27
limitless, on-demand energy with almost no emissions.
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ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื‘ืœืชื™ ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœืช, ืœืคื™ ื“ืจื™ืฉื”, ื›ืžืขื˜ ืœืœื ืคืœื™ื˜ื•ืช.
04:31
True star power, right here on Earth.
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ื›ื•ื— ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ืืžื™ืชื™, ืžืžืฉ ื›ืืŸ ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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