How do animals regrow their limbs? And why can't humans do it? - Jessica Whited

509,724 views ใƒป 2024-09-10

TED-Ed


ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: zeeva livshitz ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Ido Dekkers
00:06
For some animals, losing a limb is a decidedly permanent affair.
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ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ืขืœื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ืžื™ื, ืื™ื‘ื•ื“ ืื™ื‘ืจ ื”ื•ื ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืงื‘ื•ืข ื‘ื”ื—ืœื˜.
00:12
But for salamanders, particularly axolotls,
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ืื‘ืœ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืกืœืžื ื“ืจื•ืช, ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืืงืกื•ืœื•ื˜ืœื™ื,
00:15
amputation is just a temporary affliction.
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ืงื˜ื™ืขื” ื”ื™ื ืจืง ืกื‘ืœ ื–ืžื ื™.
00:19
Not only can they grow back entire limbs in as little as six weeks,
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ืœื ืจืง ืฉื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฆืžื™ื— ืื™ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืœืžื™ื ืชื•ืš ืฉื™ืฉื” ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ื‘ืœื‘ื“,
00:23
they can also regenerate heart and even brain tissue.
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ื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ื’ื ืœื—ื“ืฉ ืืช ื”ืœื‘ ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ืืช ืจืงืžืช ื”ืžื•ื—.
00:27
So how does this astonishing adaptation work?
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ืื– ืื™ืš ืขื•ื‘ื“ืช ื”ื”ืกืชื’ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื“ื”ื™ืžื” ื”ื–ื•?
00:32
Regardless of regeneration,
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ืœืœื ืงืฉืจ ืœื”ืชื—ื“ืฉื•ืช,
00:34
every limbed creature had to grow their arms and legs at some point.
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ื›ืœ ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื‘ืขืœ ื’ืคื™ื™ื ื ืืœืฅ ืœื’ื“ืœ ืืช ื”ื™ื“ื™ื™ื ื•ื”ืจื’ืœื™ื™ื ื‘ืฉืœื‘ ืžืกื•ื™ื.
00:38
And whether that process starts in the womb or the world,
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ื•ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื–ื” ืžืชื—ื™ืœ ื‘ืจื—ื ืื• ื‘ืขื•ืœื,
00:42
it almost always begins with little bumps called limb buds.
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ื”ื•ื ื›ืžืขื˜ ืชืžื™ื“ ืžืชื—ื™ืœ ืขื ื‘ืœื™ื˜ื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื•ืช ื”ื ืงืจืื•ืช ื ื™ืฆื ื™ ื’ืคื™ื™ื.
00:47
These buds are full of progenitor cellsโ€”
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ื ื™ืฆื ื™ื ืืœื” ืžืœืื™ื ื‘ืชืื™ ืื‘-
00:50
a cornucopia of cell types that can differentiate into various tissues,
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ืฉืคืข ืฉืœ ืกื•ื’ื™ ืชืื™ื ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืชืžื™ื™ืŸ ืœืจืงืžื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช,
00:55
including muscles, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons.
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ื›ื•ืœืœ ืฉืจื™ืจื™ื, ืกื—ื•ืก, ืจืฆื•ืขื•ืช ื•ื’ื™ื“ื™ื.
00:58
Some of these progenitors are stem cells,
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ื—ืœืง ืžืชืื™ ื”ืื‘ ื”ืœืœื• ื”ื ืชืื™ ื’ื–ืข,
01:01
capable of developing into a range of specialized cells and tissues,
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ื”ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœื”ืชืคืชื— ืœืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืชืื™ื ื•ืจืงืžื•ืช ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ื•ืช,
01:06
while others are merely derived from stem cells.
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ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉืื—ืจื™ื ื ื’ื–ืจื™ื ืจืง ืžืชืื™ ื’ื–ืข.
01:09
But in either case, the progenitors differentiate and multiply rapidly
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ืืš ื‘ืฉื ื™ ื”ืžืงืจื™ื, ืชืื™ ื”ืื‘ ืžื‘ื“ื™ืœื™ื ื•ืžืชืจื‘ื™ื ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช
01:14
as the limb bud develops.
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ืขื ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ื ื™ืฆื ื™ ื”ื’ืคื™ื™ื.
01:16
Nerves grow into the limb from nearby cell bodies
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ืขืฆื‘ื™ื ืฆื•ืžื—ื™ื ืœืื™ื‘ืจ ืžื’ื•ืคื™ ืชืื™ื ืกืžื•ื›ื™ื
01:19
and a network of blood vessels form which fuel the process with oxygen.
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ื•ื ื•ืฆืจืช ืจืฉืช ืฉืœ ื›ืœื™ ื“ื ืฉืžืชื“ืœืงื™ื ืืช ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื‘ื—ืžืฆืŸ.
01:24
Eventually, that tiny bud grows into a full infant limb.
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ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ, ื”ื ื™ืฆืŸ ื”ื–ืขื™ืจ ื”ื–ื” ื’ื“ืœ ืœืื™ื‘ืจ ืชื™ื ื•ืงื™ ืžืœื.
01:30
Most salamanders, including axolotls, develop their limbs in the same way.
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ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืกืœืžื ื“ืจื•ืช, ื›ื•ืœืœ ืืงืกื•ืœื•ื˜ืœื™ื, ืžืคืชื—ื•ืช ืืช ืื™ื‘ืจื™ื”ืŸ ื‘ืื•ืชื• ืื•ืคืŸ.
01:35
But unlike other animals, they can also start this process all over again
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ืืš ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœื‘ืขืœื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื, ื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ื’ื ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื–ื” ืžื—ื“ืฉ
01:41
if they need to.
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ืื ื”ื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื.
01:42
When salamanders lose a limb,
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ื›ืืฉืจ ืกืœืžื ื“ืจื•ืช ืžืื‘ื“ื•ืช ืื™ื‘ืจ,
01:44
surrounding skin cells quickly surge across the woundโ€™s surface.
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ืชืื™ ื”ืขื•ืจ ืฉืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืžืฆื™ืคื™ื ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืืช ืคื ื™ ื”ืคืฆืข.
01:48
This new layer of skin is called the wound epidermis,
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ืฉื›ื‘ืช ืขื•ืจ ื—ื“ืฉื” ื–ื• ื ืงืจืืช ืืคื™ื“ืจืžื™ืก ื”ืคืฆืข,
01:52
and once established, it signals cells in the underlying limb stump
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ื•ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉื ื•ืฆืจื”, ื”ื™ื ืžืกืžื ืช ืœืชืื™ื ื‘ื’ื“ื ื”ื’ืคื™ื™ื ื”ื‘ืกื™ืกื™
01:56
to undergo something called dedifferentiation.
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ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉื ืงืจื ื“ื”-ื“ื™ืคืจื ืฆื™ืืœื™ื–ืฆื™ื”.
02:00
This process reverts nearby cells from fully developed limb tissues
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ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื–ื” ืžื—ื–ื™ืจ ืชืื™ื ืกืžื•ื›ื™ื ืžืจืงืžื•ืช ื’ืคื™ื™ื ืžืคื•ืชื—ื•ืช ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ
02:04
back into earlier, less specialized progenitor cells.
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ืœืชืื™ ืื‘ ืžื•ืงื“ืžื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ, ืคื—ื•ืช ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ื™ื.
02:08
At the same time, the peripheral nervous system fires up stem cells
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ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ, ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืขืฆื‘ื™ื ื”ื”ื™ืงืคื™ืช ืžื“ืœื™ืงื” ืชืื™ ื’ื–ืข
02:13
throughout the salamanderโ€™s body.
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ื‘ื›ืœ ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ืกืœืžื ื“ืจื”.
02:15
This would be impossible for most multicellular organisms,
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ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืœืชื™ ืืคืฉืจื™ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืื•ืจื’ื ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื”ืจื‘-ืชืื™ื™ื,
02:18
whose stem cells typically lose their regenerative capacity with age.
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ืฉืชืื™ ื”ื’ื–ืข ืฉืœื”ื ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืžืื‘ื“ื™ื ืืช ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ื”ื”ืชื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื ืขื ื”ื’ื™ืœ.
02:23
But when salamander stem cells near the injury get the right signal,
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืืฉืจ ืชืื™ ื’ื–ืข ืฉืœ ืกืœืžื ื“ืจื” ืœื™ื“ ื”ืคืฆื™ืขื” ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ืืช ื”ืื•ืช ื”ื ื›ื•ืŸ,
02:27
they reactivate and start multiplying.
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ื”ื ืžื•ืคืขืœื™ื ืžื—ื“ืฉ ื•ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ืœื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช.
02:31
Researchers donโ€™t know what ratio of stem cells
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ื”ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ืื™ื ื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืื™ื–ื” ื™ื—ืก ืฉืœ ืชืื™ ื’ื–ืข
02:34
and dedifferentiated progenitor cells regeneration requires.
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ื•ืชืื™ ืื‘ ืœื ืžื•ื‘ื—ื ื™ื ื ื“ืจืฉื™ื.
02:38
But we do know these cells come together
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉื”ืชืื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืžืชืื—ื“ื™ื
02:40
to form the most important part of the process: the blastema.
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ื•ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืืช ื”ื—ืœืง ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืชื”ืœื™ืš: ื”ื‘ืœืกื˜ื•ืžื”.
02:46
This structure is almost identical to a limb budโ€”
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ืžื‘ื ื” ื–ื” ื›ืžืขื˜ ื–ื”ื” ืœื ื™ืฆืŸ ื’ืคื™ื™ื -
02:49
the primary difference is that itโ€™s made of recycled, repurposed cells,
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ื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœ ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ ื”ื•ื ืฉื”ื•ื ืขืฉื•ื™ ืžืชืื™ื ืžืžื•ื—ื–ืจื™ื, ืžืชื•ื›ื ื ื™ื ืžื—ื“ืฉ
02:53
and potentially reserved cells, rather than completely new ones.
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ื•ืชืื™ื ืฉืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืฉืžื•ืจื™ื, ื•ืœื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ.
02:58
Beyond that, blastemas and limb buds have the same mission:
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ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœื›ืš, ืœื‘ืœืกื˜ื•ืžื•ืช ื•ืœื ื™ืฆื ื™ ื’ืคื™ื™ื ื™ืฉ ืื•ืชื” ืžืฉื™ืžื”:
03:02
to make thousands of new cells and organize them
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ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืืœืคื™ ืชืื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ื•ืœืืจื’ืŸ ืื•ืชื
03:05
into the muscle, bone, skin, and nerve tissue
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ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืฉืจื™ืจ, ื”ืขืฆื, ื”ืขื•ืจ ื•ืจืงืžืช ื”ืขืฆื‘ื™ื
03:08
required for a functional limb.
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ื”ื ื“ืจืฉื™ื ืœืื™ื‘ืจ ืชืคืงื•ื“ื™.
03:10
As this process unfolds, nerves and blood vessels spanning the injury site
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ื›ื›ืœ ืฉืชื”ืœื™ืš ื–ื” ืžืชืคืชื—, ืขืฆื‘ื™ื ื•ื›ืœื™ ื“ื ื”ืžืฉืชืจืขื™ื ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื”ืคืฆื™ืขื”
03:16
transmit nutrition and oxygen.
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ืžืขื‘ื™ืจื™ื ืชื–ื•ื ื” ื•ื—ืžืฆืŸ.
03:18
Over several weeks, the stump will steadily grow
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ื‘ืžืฉืš ืžืกืคืจ ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช, ื”ื’ื“ื ื™ื’ื“ืœ ื‘ื”ืชืžื“ื”
03:21
a miniature limb with translucent skin.
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ืื™ื‘ืจ ืžื™ื ื™ืื˜ื•ืจื™ ืขื ืขื•ืจ ืฉืงื•ืฃ.
03:24
And when the process is complete,
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ื•ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื™ืกืชื™ื™ื,
03:26
not only will the limb match the rest of the salamander,
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ืœื ืจืง ืฉื”ืื™ื‘ืจ ื™ืชืื™ื ืœืฉืืจ ื”ืกืœืžื ื“ืจื”,
03:30
there won't even be a scar.
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ืืคื™ืœื• ืœื ืชื”ื™ื” ืฆืœืงืช.
03:33
The relationship between scarring and regeneration
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ื”ืงืฉืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฆื˜ืœืงื•ืช ื•ื”ืชื—ื“ืฉื•ืช
03:36
is just one of this processesโ€™ many mysteries.
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ื”ื•ื ืจืง ืื—ืช ืžื”ืชืขืœื•ืžื•ืช ื”ืจื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืชื”ืœื™ื›ื™ื ืืœื”.
03:39
Scientists are still tracking salamander cells on the molecular level
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ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืขื•ืงื‘ื™ื ืื—ืจ ืชืื™ ืกืœืžื ื“ืจื” ื‘ืจืžื” ื”ืžื•ืœืงื•ืœืจื™ืช
03:44
to determine how they revert from a mature stage into a regenerative one.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืงื‘ื•ืข ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ื ื—ื•ื–ืจื™ื ืžืฉืœื‘ ื‘ื•ื’ืจ ืœืฉืœื‘ ืžืชื—ื“ืฉ.
03:49
And research into transplanting blastema cells investigates
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ื•ืžื—ืงืจ ืขืœ ื”ืฉืชืœืช ืชืื™ ื‘ืœืกื˜ืžื” ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื
03:52
how other animals might replicate this reconstructive wizardry.
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ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื‘ืขืœื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื ืœืฉื›ืคืœ ืืช ื”ืงืกื ื”ืžืฉื—ื–ืจ ื”ื–ื”.
03:57
We also donโ€™t understand how salamandersโ€™ bodies know
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื’ื ืœื ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื’ื•ืคื•ืช ื”ืกืœืžื ื“ืจื•ืช
04:00
what part of the limb has been lost or how much needs to be regrown.
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ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืื™ื–ื” ื—ืœืง ื‘ืื™ื‘ืจ ืื‘ื“ ืื• ื›ืžื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื’ื“ืœ ืžื—ื“ืฉ.
04:05
One theory is that blastema cells have a form of positional memory,
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ืชื™ืื•ืจื™ื” ืื—ืช ื”ื™ื ืฉืœืชืื™ ื‘ืœืกื˜ืžื” ื™ืฉ ืฆื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืžื™ืงื•ื,
04:10
allowing them to determine how much to grow in relation to one another.
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ื”ืžืืคืฉืจืช ืœื”ื ืœืงื‘ื•ืข ื›ืžื” ืœื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ื™ื—ืก ืื—ื“ ืœืฉื ื™.
04:14
And itโ€™s equally important to understand how these limbs know when to stop growing
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ื•ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื ืคื—ื•ืช ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื™ืš ื”ื’ืคื™ื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื™ื•ื“ืขื•ืช ืžืชื™ ืœื”ืคืกื™ืง ืœื’ื“ื•ืœ
04:19
to prevent overdevelopment, like in cancerous tumors.
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืžื ื•ืข ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ื™ืชืจ, ื›ืžื• ื‘ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœื™ื ืกืจื˜ื ื™ื™ื.
04:23
But one of regenerations essential ingredients doesnโ€™t belong solely
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ืื‘ืœ ืื—ื“ ื”ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ื”ื—ื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื”ืชื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืื™ื ื• ืฉื™ื™ืš ืจืง
04:27
to salamanders: the blastema.
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ืœืกืœืžื ื“ืจื•ืช: ื”ื‘ืœืกื˜ื•ืžื”.
04:30
Deer antlers use a similar healing tissue to regenerate each year,
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ืงืจื ื™ ืฆื‘ืื™ื ืžืฉืชืžืฉื•ืช ื‘ืจืงืžืช ืจื™ืคื•ื™ ื“ื•ืžื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืชื—ื“ืฉ ืžื“ื™ ืฉื ื”,
04:35
even though their skin scars like ours.
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ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉืขื•ืจืŸ ืžืฆื˜ืœืง ื›ืžื• ืฉืœื ื•.
04:38
Spiny mice can also restore skin, hair, and some other appendages scar-free.
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ืขื›ื‘ืจื™ื ืงื•ืฆื ื™ื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ื’ื ืœืฉื—ื–ืจ ืขื•ืจ, ืฉื™ืขืจ ื•ื›ืžื” ื ืกืคื—ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืœืœื ืฆืœืงื•ืช.
04:45
And even humans can regenerate the tips of our fingers and toes
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ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื—ื“ืฉ ืืช ืงืฆื•ืช ื”ืืฆื‘ืขื•ืช ื•ื”ื‘ื”ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•
04:49
in a surprisingly similar manner.
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ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื“ื•ืžื” ืœื”ืคืœื™ื.
04:52
We still donโ€™t know whether this ability is tied
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืื ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ื–ื• ืงืฉื•ืจื”
04:55
to our shared ancestry with salamanders
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ืœืžื•ืฆื ื”ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ ืฉืœื ื• ืขื ืกืœืžื ื“ืจื•ืช
04:57
or fueled by distinct biological mechanisms.
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ืื• ืžื•ื ืขืช ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื ื’ื ื•ื ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื ืžื•ื‘ื”ืงื™ื.
05:00
But with time and research,
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ืื‘ืœ ืขื ื”ื–ืžืŸ ื•ื”ืžื—ืงืจ,
05:02
who knows what evolutionary knowledge we might grow back.
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ืžื™ ื™ื•ื“ืข ืื™ื–ื” ื™ื“ืข ืื‘ื•ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ืื ื• ืขืฉื•ื™ื™ื ืœืฆืžื— ื‘ื—ื–ืจื”.
ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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