The hidden history found in your teeth | Carolyn Freiwald

Transcriber:

譯者: 穎君 紀 審譯者: Helen Chang

我要各位在腦中描繪一幅畫面，

當你聽到：

「移民」這詞的時候。

I want you to think about the image that you see when I say one word, Migrante.

你可能想像一艘擠滿人的船 航行在不穩的海上，

人們緊抓貨運列車的外牆，

或人們穿著破爛的鞋橫跨沙漠的景象。

這是我們在新聞裡看見的景象，

You may have pictured a crowded boat in rough waters,

二十四小時，一天接著一天， 一則接著一則。

people clinging to the top of a freight train or crossing

我們看見的移民都充滿絕望， 自戰爭、氣候變遷的影響、貧窮逃亡。

a desert wearing worn out shoes.

This is what we see in the news cycle, 24 hours, day after day, story after story,

但事實上，許多人遷移 是因爲更普遍的理由：

people who are desperate, fleeing wars, fleeing climate change, fleeing poverty.

接受更好的教育、找工作、 尋找家人，或與某人墜入愛河。

But in reality, most people move for more common reasons to get

這一點都不新奇。

考古學家如我，研究遷移一段時間了，

a good education, to find a job, to find family members or to fall in love.

發現幾百年來，甚至幾千年來的人們，

And this is nothing new. Archaeologists like me have been studying migration

早已會在許多地方之間移動。

從歐洲最早的一批農民，到維京海盜，

and finding that people for hundreds

羅馬鬥士，甚至到尼安德塔穴居人，

and even thousands of years have been moving around

到活在現代的你和我。

the globe from Europe's earliest farmers to Vikings to Pirates,

流動性是使人類成為人類的一大要素。

人們會移動。

Roman gladiators and even Neanderthal cavemen and people like you and me.

我們知道這件事是因為有某種力量， 將你的軀殼搬進了今晚這個會場裡。

Mobility is one of the things that makes us human. People move.

你將你的身體搬至許多不同的地方： 工作場所、健身房、床，

和浴室。

And we know this because of something that you brought with you here tonight.

這股力量不來自手機，

不來自某樣在皮包或口袋裡的東西，

You carry it with you to many places to work, to the gym, to bed,

而是來自你，你的身體 和全身上下共 206 塊的骨頭。

and even in the shower. It's not your cell phone and it's not in your purse

我有帶我的 206 塊骨頭過來， 如果你出於某些原因沒有帶來自己的，

or your pockets. It's you. It's your body and your bones, all 206 of them.

我有帶備用的。

因為你的骨頭能夠講述你的人生故事，

就連一顆牙齒都行。

I brought mine and in case for some reason you didn't bring yours along,

我們都知道牙齒會告訴我們許多事情。

we do have an extra one here because your bones will tell

比如說，給牙醫師看的話，

他們能看出你有沒有用牙線潔牙，

the story of your life, even a single tooth.

或，像我一樣喜歡吃糖的話， 牙齒上就會留下幾個蛀牙的坑洞

And we know that teeth tell us many things for your dentist, for example.

如果我的牙醫今晚在場， 對，我星期一會去找您看診，

He or she can see if you floss or if, like me,

我都有乖乖潔牙。

除此之外，牙齒還能告訴我們 你的移動經歷。

really like candy and you might end up with some cavities.

如果你用舌尖掃過你的上門牙背面，

And if my dentist is here tonight, yes, I will see you Monday.

這幾顆牙，

And I've been very good. But your teeth also tell you something about migration.

感覺是平的，代表你的祖先 可能來自歐洲或非洲。

If you take your tongue and run it along your incisors, these front teeth,

感覺有點像鏟子面一般凹陷的話，

你的祖先可能是北美原住民 或自亞洲遷移來的。

the back of those will be flat.

If you have European or African ancestry,

如果我們來到牙齒的更深層：髓腔，

if you feel a sort of scoop or shovel shape,

我們就能採集 DNA ，

看看你的祖先是來自埃及還是英國， 或是兩邊。

your ancestors may have been Native American or migrated from Asia.

If we go inside the tooth to the pulp cavity,

但我們最有興趣的不是

we may be able to extract the DNA and see if your ancestors came from Egypt

你家族的，而是你的遷移歷程。

在這裡，我們要檢測你的琺瑯質，

or England or both. But we're not interested

它的成分，

試著釐清一個人有沒有遷移過，

as much in your family's migration history as yours.

甚至到遷移的時間。

這個方法的基礎是一種很簡單的想法： 人如其食。

And we're that's where we go to the tooth enamel,

what it's made out of to try and find out if a person moved

食物裡的礦物質和化學元素，

and even if when they moved.

如鈣、氧， H2O 裡的 O ，

And it's based on one simple idea that you are what you eat,

鈉，和鹽，

能透露一些你的飲食大小事。

all the minerals and the elements in the food, like calcium, oxygen,

我們能知道 你比較喜歡玉米麵包還是白麵包，

比較喜歡豬肉，雞肉，還是海鮮。

which is the own H2O, sodium and salt, can tell us something about your diet.

還有其他元素 能告訴我們這些食物從哪來，

So we know if you like cornbread or white bread, if you prefer pork,

如硫、鍶、氧，和鉛

chicken, or if you really like seafood,

—你不想攝取太多的元素—

但這些元素告訴我們食物的產地，

there are other elements that tell us where that food came from

而食物產地又能告訴我們， 你是在哪裡吃進去那樣食物的。

and that includes sulfur, strontium, oxygen and even lead, which of course,

這方法被考古學家用來 鑑識出古代的遷移活動。

you don't want very much of.

But these tell us where the food comes from

如果我們分析琺瑯質成分，

and that can tell us where you were when you were eating it.

就能發現，比方說 你的第一大臼齒，

And that is what archaeologists use to identify ancient migration.

這是唯一一顆從嬰兒時期便開始生長，

但到成人時期還會留下的牙齒，

If we look inside the tooth enamel, we can see, for example, in your first molar,

這顆能告訴我們你嬰兒時期住在哪裡。

如果我們分析智齒， 最晚長出的那顆牙，

this is the one that was forming along with your baby teeth,

but it's the only one you still have.

它的琺瑯質礦化時期 正好是青春期前後。

And that tells us where you were living as an infant.

所以我們又能知道 你青春期時住在哪了。

If we look at the wisdom tooth, which is the last tooth,

如果我們分析你的骨頭

the form that enamel would have been mineralized.

—在停頓的那刻，你 又生成了新的骨骼細胞—

And just before you hit your teenage years.

它會告訴我們你吃了什麼，做了什麼，

So we know where you're living then. If we look at your bones.

在過去的十年裡。

我們真的能夠追蹤人們的足跡。

And in that pause, you just form some new cells that's telling us what you're

我們將這個方式用在數千數百人上，

eating and what you're doing and just about the past decade of life,

找出古代人遷移的經歷。

so we can really track where people moved.

我接下來要介紹幾位移居的古人。

And we've looked at this for hundreds

如果我們回到一千六百年前， 可以去科潘市，

and thousands of individuals to identify migration in the past.

這是馬雅人曾經居住過的地方， 現在位於宏都拉斯。

So I'd like to introduce you to some ancient migrants. If we go back in time.

如果在西元四百年左右來到科潘市，

Six hundred years, we can go to the city of Kapone,

我們可能可以走進寬闊的廣場， 頂著熱帶艷陽，

where the Maya people lived in what's now Honduras.

看著陽光照耀艷紅外壁的建築，

建築前方有著祭壇和雕像。

If we came around the year 400 A.D. ,

we might have walked into broad plazas under

如果我們挑對日子前來，

a really hot tropical sun that was shining onto bright red painted buildings

我們甚至可能目睹統治者 「亞克庫毛」的登基大典，

that had altars and carved statues in front of them.

「亞克庫毛」粗略的翻譯是 「偉大的太陽」。

If we'd come on the right day,

馬雅文明的統治者們都有很妙的名字：

we might have seen the inauguration of ruler Kenichi Cookman roughly translated.

鳥豹，黑暗太陽，骷髏女士。

不過亞克庫毛很厲害的地方是，

That means faced first MCCA.

The Maya rulers had really great names for Jaguar Dark Son, Lady, Great Skull.

他建立了一個存續超過四百年的王朝。

且每條對他的描述，如各位所見，

But what was really neat about Yash Kumar is that he established

都指出他穿著外國的服飾。

這是墨西哥中部人會穿的服飾，

a dynasty that lasted for more than 400 years.

而墨西哥中部不在馬雅地區內， 甚至在幾百哩遠的地方。

And every depiction we have of him, as you see here,

所以長久以來，考古學家都認為他是 外地來的統治者，

shows him in foreign clothing.

This is what people wore in central Mexico,

which was not in the Maya region and actually hundreds of miles away.

但他的牙齒可不這麼說。

我們分析了他的第一大臼齒、 智齒和骨頭，

So for a long time, archaeologists thought that this was a foreign king,

發現他可能來自馬雅地區的某處。

but his teeth told a different story by sampling his first molar, his wisdom,

所以他是位移居者， 可能住過許多地方，

在來到科潘之前，

tooth and bone. We found that he, in fact,

即使他身穿異國服裝，

probably came from somewhere in the Maya region.

So he was a migrant, but he may have lived in multiple places before coming to

看起來像從墨西哥來的。

而我一直在想， 世界大賽裡芝加哥小熊隊出賽的時候，

live at Kapone, even though he dressed like he was a foreigner,

許多人跑去買他們的周邊商品，

即使他們人不在芝加哥。

someone from Mexico. And I was think about when the Chicago Cubs were in

還蠻好看的。

我再帶你們去另一座馬雅城市，

the World Series and people went out and bought Cubs gear,

這是我的工作地點，蘇南圖尼奇。

even though maybe they'd never been to Chicago. It's a good look.

2016 年，考古學家發掘出 至今發現最大的墳墓，

位於貝里斯，蘇南圖尼奇的所在地。

But let me take you to another Maya city. And this is where our culture continues.

在那座墳墓裡有著統治者的遺物，

In 2016, archaeologists found the largest team ever discovered in

和玉製品，

玉製的盤子和船隻， 如你可能在博物館看過的玉製品一般，

the country in Belize. That question, Anthony Chiz.

And inside that tomb, there was the remains, the remains of a ruler,

和美洲豹骨頭，可能象徵王室的權力。

這個人可能真的穿過豹皮披風。

but also gayed, the kind of plates and

the kind of vessels that you might see in a museum and Jagwar Bones,

但蘇南圖尼奇就是個小城市，

which symbolize possibly royal power.

所以這人可能是外地來的統治者。

This person may have actually even been wearing a Jaguar pelt cape,

但其實，分析過 DNA 和琺瑯質後，

but she was a fairly small city.

發現這人不是外地人。

So there was a possibility that this was a foreign ruler.

她是馬雅的女王，

或其他可能是當地人的王室親族。

But in fact, looking at the DNA and looking at the tooth enamel,

外地來的國王和女王其實並不常見。

this was no foreign king. She was a Maya queen

但我說過，話題的重點在於 「移居的人」。

or some other royalty who was probably local.

這麼說是因為，其實，

移動的是平民。

We actually don't usually find foreign kings and queens.

在每個村莊和城市裡， 都有高達 25% 的人口

But I told you the story was about migrants.

是移居者：男女、小孩

And it is because, in fact,

it was the commoners who moved up to 25 percent of

來自四面八方，

住進同個屋簷下。

the population of every village and every city consisted of migrants, men,

移居在馬雅文明裡似乎是很普遍的事，

其他古文明也是如此。

women and children who'd moved sometimes from multiple places to live in

時間快轉到 1493 年，

the same household. Migration seemed to be common among the Maya

哥倫布啟航，揭開第二次航行的序幕，

為了建立貿易的前哨。

and many ancient civilizations.

他率領十七艘船，一千兩百名人員， 包含貴族、聖職人員、水手和工匠，

But we can move forward in time to the A14 93,

when Christopher Columbus set off on his second voyage to establish

去建立現在的伊莎貝拉鎮，

a trading outpost, he left with 17 ships and twelve hundred men, nobility, clergy,

使用了伊莎貝拉女王的名字，

它位於多明尼加共和國的北端，

sailors and craftsmen to establish what we now know is like Isabella,

或當時人們口中的西班牙鎮。

當時的狀態並不樂觀： 食物匱乏，疾病猖獗，

named after Queen Isabella in the northern part of

且哥倫布可能不太會管理人，

the Dominican Republic, or La Spagnola, as they called it then.

所以船員的死亡率很高。

Things were not good, food was scarce, disease was rampant in Columbus,

到了 1980、90 年代，

考古學家開始發掘一行人的定居地，

及他們的墓地，

may not have been the best manager, so mortality rates were high.

學者們開始想：

埋葬在這裡的人， 全都有在船員名冊裡嗎？

And by the 1980s and 90s, when archaeologists began to excavate

有誰真的住在伊莎貝拉城？

the settlement and then the cemetery, they started to wonder,

這次發掘行動之後沒多久， 還是碩士的我就被派來這裡工作，

did the ships rosters leave?

分派給我的任務，是走遍這座島，

Include everyone who is buried here who actually lived at LA Isabella.

試著蒐集人類牙齒的替代品。

那些住在拉伊莎貝拉的人， 琺瑯質的分析結果究竟如何？

My job came a bit later as a graduate student when

I was tasked with going around the island to try

其他人被派去西班牙，

and collect samples that could serve as proxies for human teeth,

而我租了一輛車，去兜風，

上深山，下河谷，

what would the enamel look like of the people who are living at Isobella?

不忘造訪一兩座沙灘。

Someone else got to go to Spain, but I rented a car, drove around,

一切都進行得很順利，

直到工作最後一天， 我來到一處本該是橋的地方，

went into the mountains, drove toward the river valleys.

在那看到一條河和一群牛。

And of course, I went to a beach or two

當時天色已經開始變暗， 我一個人，車子快沒油，

and everything was going really well until the last day when

I came to what was supposed to be a bridge and saw a river and

然後我看見幾位牛仔在河的對面，

a herd of cows. So it was getting dark. I was by myself. I was low on gas.

好像在對我招手。

我搖下車窗， 加速駛向他們所在的地方。

最後我順利到了對岸， 蒐集到樣本，

And after I saw some cowboys on the other side of

十分好運， 因為還有其他驚喜。

the river kind of waving their hands,

我們找到一些軍人和人民，他們 可能來自西班牙的安達魯西亞，

I just rolled down the window and gunned it and I made it across and I had

也就是哥倫布啟航的地方，

the samples, which was a good thing because there were some surprises.

以及其他地中海附近的地區。

但我們還找到了一位泰諾族女性

We did find soldiers and people from Spain , probably Andalusia,

—當地的—，

其他來自歐洲的女性，

where Columbus sailed from and maybe other parts of the Mediterranean.

以及另一個人

—如果能採集 DNA 來驗證—，

But we also found an indigenous Taino woman,

a local one and other women who came from Europe, and one person who,

可能來自非洲。

這些人都沒有出現在船員的名冊。

牙齒可以告訴我們 歷史課本沒教的事。

if we can get some DNA to see if this is actually true, may have been from Africa.

最後一則故事， 我要帶你們回到密西西比河附近，

None of these people were on the ships rosters.

一座廢棄的墓園，就在傑克森市西邊，

Teeth can tell us things that the history books leave out.

在那裡我們能讀到移居者們的故事，

那些 1800 年代早期 定居在此的移居者。

Our final story brings us back closer to Mississippi to

有些移居者金錢充裕，

an abandoned cemetery just west of Jackson,

能夠為自己買塊墓碑， 刻上自己的人生故事。

where we can learn about the lives of the settlers who lived here in

比如有無婚事，比如有無後代，

the early eighteen hundreds. Now, some of them came with wealth.

比如他們從哪裡來， 或甚至他們怎麼逝世，

They could have tombstones and write the life histories

因為當時霍亂和黃熱病 在當地十分流行。

on their graves if they were married, whether they had children,

理查活到 56 歲， 逝於 1849 年。

where they came from and sometimes even how they died.

As cholera and yellow fever epidemics swept through the region,

查理的人生短了一點。

他在 1855年逝世， 只活到了 29 歲，

Richards lived until age 56. He died in 1849.

這些人是農場主，

我們知道他們帶著奴隸。

Charles had a shorter life in 1855, he'd survived only to age 29.

那奴隸們被埋在哪裡？

貧窮的農夫們和佃農們被埋在哪裡？

墓園裡的墓有 350 個以上。

But these men were planters,

and we know that they bought enslaved people with them. Where were they buried?

所以我們決定盡力解決 這些考古鑑識案件，

And what about the poor farmers and the sharecroppers?

重建曾住在這裡的人的生活情景。

There were more than 350 graves in the cemetery.

其中一個人，一位移居者，

And so we decided to do our best to solve these historic forensic cases

被埋葬在 3 號墓，

這位是非洲裔，

and reconstruct the lives of the people who lived there.

活到了中年，甚至可能到晚年，

And one of these people, one of the migrants,

直到 1900 年代初過世。

was a man buried in Grave three. He was of African descent.

他可能生來就是奴隸，

那我們就開始想， 他是被某人帶來密西西比河的嗎？

He lived in the middle, maybe even old age by the time he died in

他是不是像其他兒童奴隸一樣， 自幼就被迫和家人分離？

the early 1980s. He was probably born into slavery.

或，他是在南北戰爭後， 為自己打造新生活而來的嗎？

And so we wonder, was he brought to Mississippi,

還是為尋找家人而來？

was he taken from his family like so many enslaved children were,

他和其他擁有相似生命經驗的人們

（被埋葬在 18 號和 219 號墓的移居者）

or did he come after the civil war to make a new life for himself,

refined family? He and the men with similar life histories,

賺的錢夠多，

能讓家人負擔得起一場體面的葬禮，

migrants who are buried in Graves 18 and grave 219.

甚至是很花錢的葬禮。

所以，就算不知道他們的名字，

They made a good enough living that their families were able to give them nice

還是能得知一些他們的身世。

遷移也是我的生平的一部份。

burials, maybe even expensive ones.

我的祖父母來自德國，

So even if we can't say their names,

祖父在 1923 年來和他叔叔團聚，

we can at least tell something of their stories.

我祖母在祖父來美國幾年後也來了。

And migration is part of my story, too, my grandparents came from Germany,

我們剛找到他們的旅行證件，

和一張我奶奶的照片，她坐在

my grandpa in 1923, to join his uncle and my grandma.

橫渡大西洋的某艘船裡的休閒椅上。

A few years later, we just found their travel documents and

我們不知道為何他們要過來，

但我想，應該有些理由

a picture of my grandma and a lounge chair on one of

吸引人們來到美國：

the big ships that sailed across the Atlantic.

他們渴望新天地，對這塊地懷有希望，

We actually don't know exactly why they came,

不是為了改善自己的生活， 就是為了讓小孩過得好。

but I imagine it's for the same reason that people come today to

這兩個人在芝加哥相遇，結婚， 生下兩個男孩，其中一個是我爸。

the United States because they had a hunger and a hope,

if not to make life better for themselves, to do it for their kids.

我是這家族遷移至美國以來的第三代， 我也是個移居者。

They met in Chicago, got married and had two boys, one of those was my dad,

我從中西部來到密西西比不到十年。

I'm the third generation of my family to be here and I'm also a migrant.

所以，不論你的家族 有沒有悠長的移居故事，

I've come less than 10 years ago from the Midwest to live in Mississippi.

不論你有沒有 在鏡子裡看見自己的移居史，

請記得每次露牙微笑，

So whether your family has an ancient migration story or whether you look in

你就在分享自己的生平。

謝謝。

the mirror and see yours, remember that every time you smile and show your teeth,

you're sharing that. Thank you.