Lessons from fungi on markets and economics | Toby Kiers

譯者: Regina Chu 審譯者: Marssi Draw

So I stand before you as an evolutionary biologist,

我以演化生物學家的身分站在這裡，

a professor of evolutionary biology,

我是演化生物學教授，

which sounds like a rather fancy title, if I may say so myself.

這聽起來是個挺炫的頭銜， 如果可以這樣說的話。

And I'm going to talk about two topics

我打算要談兩個主題，

that aren't normally talked about together,

通常它們不會被放在一起講，

and that's market economies and fungi.

那就是：市場經濟和真菌。

Or is it fun-GUY, or, as we say in Europe now, fun-GEE?

是美國發音 fun-Guy， 還是歐洲發音 fun-GEE？

There's still no consensus on how to say this word.

要怎麼唸這個字，還沒有共識。

So I want you to imagine a market economy

我想請大家想像某個市場經濟，

that's 400 million years old,

它已經有四億年的歷史，

one that's so ubiquitous that it operates in almost every ecosystem of the world,

它無所不在，幾乎在世界上的 每一個生態系統中運作，

so huge that it can connect millions of traders simultaneously,

它龐大到可以同時連結 數百萬交易者，

and so persistent

而且非常頑強，

that it survived mass extinctions.

能從物種滅絕中存活下來。

It's here, right now, under our feet.

它現在就在這裡，在我們的腳下。

You just can't see it.

大家只是看不到它。

And unlike human economies

不像人類的經濟，

that rely on cognition to make decisions,

要仰賴認知來做決策，

traders in this market, they beg, borrow, steal, cheat,

在這個市場中的交易者 會求、借、偷、騙，

all in the absence of thought.

全都在無思想狀態下進行。

So hidden from our eyes,

所以，在我們看不到的地方，

plant roots are colonized by a fungus called arbuscule mycorrhizae.

有種真菌叫做叢枝菌根菌， 定殖於植物的根部。

Now the fungus forms these complex networks underground

真菌類在地底下 形成複雜的菌絲網絡，

of fine filaments thinner than even threads of cotton.

這種絲比棉線還細。

So follow one of these fungi,

循著某株真菌走，

and it connects multiple plants simultaneously.

會看到它同時連到許多棵植物。

You can think of it as an underground subway system,

你可以把它看作地下鐵系統，

where each root is a station,

每棵植物的根都是一個車站，

where resources are loaded and unloaded.

各種資源都在那裡上下貨。

And it's also very dense,

它也非常密集，

so roughly the length of many meters, even a kilometer,

大概有好幾公尺長， 甚至長達一公里，

in a single gram of dirt.

存在於僅僅一公克的土中。

So that's the length of 10 football fields

那是十座橄欖球場的長度，

in just a thimbleful of soil.

在僅僅一小撮土中。

And it's everywhere.

而且它無所不在。

So if you passed over a tree, a shrub, a vine, even a tiny weed,

如果你經過一棵樹、一叢灌木、

一片藤蔓，甚至只是一棵小小的野草，

you passed over a mycorrhizal network.

你經過的是一片菌根網絡。

Roughly 80 percent of all plant species

大約 80% 的植物物種

are associated with these mycorrhizal fungi.

都沾染了這種菌根菌。

So what does a root covered in fungi

植物根部被真菌包覆

have to do with our global economy?

跟我們的全球經濟有什麼關係？

And why as an evolutionary biologist have I spent the last 10 years of my life

我身為演化生物學家， 為什麼要花過去十年的生命

learning economic jargon?

學習經濟術語？

Well, the first thing you need to understand

第一，你得了解

植物與其真菌夥伴間的交易，

is that trade deals made by plant and fungal partners

are surprisingly similar

與我們人類之間的交易極其相似，

to those made by us,

but perhaps even more strategic.

而且可能還更有策略。

You see, plant and fungal partners,

你看，植物與真菌夥伴，

they're not exchanging stocks and bonds,

它們交易的不是股票債券，

they're exchanging essential resources,

它們交易的是必要資源，

and for the fungus, that's sugars and fats.

對於真菌，就是糖及脂肪。

It gets all of its carbon directly from the plant partner.

它從植物夥伴那邊直接取碳。

So much carbon, so every year, roughly five billion tons of carbon

那麼多碳，每年大約有五十億噸的碳

from plants go into this network underground.

從植物進入這個地下網絡。

For the root, what they need is phosphorus and nitrogen,

對植物的根，它們需要的是磷及氮，

so by exchanging their carbon

所以它們藉著交換自己的碳

they get access to all of the nutrients collected by that fungal network.

以取得整個真菌網絡收集的養分。

So to make the trade,

要做這筆交易，

the fungus penetrates into the root cell of the host

真菌要穿透滲入宿主的根部細胞

and forms a tiny structure called an arbuscule,

並形成一個微小的結構， 稱為叢枝吸胞，

which is Latin for "little tree."

原文的拉丁文意思就是小樹。

Now, you can think of this as the physical stock exchange

你可以把這個想成

在交易市場把一張張 紙本股票拿來交換。

of the trade market.

So up until now, it seems very harmonious.

到目前為止，這都還算和諧。

Right? I scratch your back, you scratch mine,

對吧？我幫你抓抓背， 你也幫我搔一搔，

both partners get what they need.

兩邊都得益。

But here is where we need to pause

但是我們得在這裡暫停，

and understand the power of evolution and natural selection.

了解一下演化及天擇的力量。

You see, there's no room for amateur traders on this market.

你看，這個市場容不下業餘的交易員。

Making the right trade strategy

正確的交易策略

determines who lives and who dies.

決定誰生誰死。

Now, I use the word strategy,

我用策略這個字，

but of course plant and fungi, they don't have brains.

但是植物及真菌當然沒有頭腦。

They're making these exchanges

它們要在我們認為 沒有思考的狀態下進行這些交易。

in the absence of anything that we would consider as thought.

But, as scientists, we use behavioral terms

但是，身為科學家的我們 會用行為學的名詞，

such as strategy

例如策略，

to describe behaviors to certain conditions,

來描述某些狀況、行動 及反應下的行為，

actions and reactions

that are actually programmed into the DNA of the organism.

這些行為都已經寫入 這些有機體的 DNA 中。

So I started studying these trade strategies

所以我十九歲 就開始研究這些交易策略。

when I was 19 years old

and I was living in the tropical rainforests of Panama.

當時我住在巴拿馬的熱帶雨林裡。

Now, everybody at the time was interested in this incredible diversity aboveground.

那時候每一個人都對這片地面上 驚人的多樣性感興趣。

And it was hyperdiversity. These are tropical rainforests.

太多樣了。這些熱帶雨林。

But I was interested in the complexity belowground.

但是我關心的是地面下的複雜性。

We knew that the networks existed, and we knew they were important,

我們知道這片地下網絡的存在， 我們也知道它們很重要，

and I'm going to say it again, by important I mean important,

我要再說一次， 我說重要因為它真的很重要，

so the basis of all plant nutrition

因為這是所有植物的營養基礎，

for all the diversity that you do see aboveground.

給所有你在地面上 能看到的多樣化植物。

But at the time, we didn't know how these networks worked.

但是當時，我們不知道 這些網絡如何工作。

We didn't know how they functioned.

我們不知道它們如何運作。

Why did only certain plants interact with certain fungi?

為什麼只有某些植物 會與某些真菌相互作用？

So fast-forward to when I started my own group,

快轉到我成立自己的團隊的時候，

and we really began to play with this trade market.

我們真的開始玩這個 貿易市場的遊戲。

You see, we would manipulate conditions.

你看，我們可以操縱各式條件。

We would create a good trading partner by growing a plant in the sun

我們可以讓植物生長在陽光下， 以創造好的貿易夥伴，

and a poor trading partner by growing it in the shade.

也可以讓植物生長在陰影下， 創造出不好的貿易夥伴。

We would then connect these with a fungal network.

然後我們把這些跟真菌網絡連上。

And we found that the fungi were consistently good

我們發現真菌總是能分辨出

at discriminating among good and bad trading partners.

好的與不好的貿易夥伴。

They would allocate more resources to the host plant giving them more carbon.

它們會分配更多的資源 給提供它們較多碳的寄主植物。

Now, we would run the reciprocal experiments

然後，我們會做互換實驗，

where we would inoculate a host plant with good and bad fungi,

我們把一株寄主植物 接種好的和不好的真菌，

and they were also good at discriminating between these trade partners.

它們也很會分辨這些貿易夥伴。

So what you have there is the perfect conditions for a market to emerge.

所以你所擁有的 是市場興起的完美條件。

It's a simple market,

這是個很簡單的市場，

but it's a market nonetheless,

但這仍然是一個市場，

where the better trading partner is consistently favored.

比較好的貿易夥伴總是受到青睞。

But is it a fair market?

但這是個公平交易的市場嗎？

Now this is where you need to understand that, like humans,

這點你必須了解，就像人類，

plants and fungi are incredibly opportunistic.

植物和真菌都極其機會主義。

There's evidence that the fungus, once it penetrates into the plant cell,

有證據證明一旦真菌滲入植物細胞，

it can actually hijack the plant's own nutrient uptake system.

它就能劫持植物本身的 營養吸收系統。

It does this by suppressing the plant's own ability

它能做到這點， 是因為它抑制植物本身

to take up nutrients from the soil.

從土壤吸收養分的能力。

So this creates a dependency of the plant on the fungus.

這就讓植物對真菌產生依賴。

It's a false addiction, of sorts,

很像假性上癮，

whereby the plant has to feed the fungus

植物必須餵養真菌，

just to get access to the resources right around its own root.

才能取得就在自己根部周圍的資源。

There's also evidence that the fungi are good at inflating the price of nutrients.

也有證據顯示真菌很擅長 抬高養分的價錢。

They do this by extracting the nutrients from the soil,

怎麼做呢？它們抽取土中的養分，

but then rather than trading them with the host,

但不是拿來與寄主交換，

they hoard them in their network,

而是囤積在它們的網絡中，

so this makes them unavailable to the plant and other competing fungi.

這樣植物及其它競爭的真菌 就拿不到養分。

So basic economics,

所以基礎經濟學，

as resource availability goes down, the value goes up.

物以稀為貴。

The plant is forced to pay more for the same amount of resources.

植物被迫要付出更多 才能獲得同等量的資源。

But it's not all in favor of the fungus.

但是這也不是一面倒向真菌。

Plants can be extremely cunning as well.

植物也非常狡猾。

There are some orchids --

有些蘭花——

and I always think orchids somehow seem like the most devious

我總認為蘭花從某方面看似乎是

全世界最狡詐的一種植物——

of the plant species in the world --

and there are some orchids

有些蘭花

that just tap directly into the network

就直接插進網絡，

and steal all their carbon.

從中偷取它們的碳。

So these orchids, they don't even make green leaves to photosynthesize.

所以這些蘭花， 它們甚至不長綠葉行光合作用。

They're just white.

它們就是白色的。

So rather than photosynthesizing,

所以與其行光合作用，

tap into the network,

還不如伸進網絡，

steal the carbon

偷取碳素，

and give nothing in return.

什麼回報都不給。

Now I think it's fair to say that these types of parasites

現在我想這麼說很公平，

這種寄生菌也可以 在人類的市場上蓬勃發展。

also flourish in our human markets.

So as we began to decode these strategies,

所以當我們開始譯解這些策略，

we learned some lessons.

我們學到了一些東西。

And the first one was that there's no altruism in this system.

第一件就是這個系統裡 沒有利他主義。

There's no trade favors.

沒有貿易優惠。

We don't see strong evidence

我們沒有看到強力證據

of the fungus helping dying or struggling plants

證明真菌會幫助垂死或掙扎的植物，

unless it directly benefits the fungus itself.

除非真菌本身 能直接從這棵植物受益。

Now I'm not saying if this is good or bad.

我不是在說這是好還是壞。

Unlike humans, a fungus, of course, cannot judge its own morality.

真菌當然不像人類， 無法判斷自己的道德。

And as a biologist,

身為生物學家，

I'm not advocating for these types of ruthless neoliberal market dynamics

我不是要提倡這種

由真菌推動的冷酷 新自由主義市場動力。

enacted by the fungi.

But the trade system,

但是這個貿易系統，

it provides us with a benchmark

為我們提供了基準點

to study what an economy looks like

研究經濟看起來會像什麼——

when it's been shaped by natural selection

在天擇的塑造下，

for hundreds of millions of years

歷經數十億萬年，

in the absence of morality,

沒有道德，

when strategies are just based

所有的策略都只基於

on the gathering and processing of information,

收集和處理資訊，

uncontaminated by cognition:

不受認知的汙染：

no jealousy, no spite,

沒有忌妒、怨恨，

but no hope, no joy.

但也沒有希望、沒有喜樂。

So we've made progress

所以我們的確在解密

in decoding the most basic trade principles at this point,

這最基本的交易規則上有進展，

but as scientists we always want to take it one step further,

但是我們身為科學家， 總是想再進一步看，

and we're interested in more complex economic dilemmas.

而且我們對更複雜的 經濟難題有興趣。

And specifically we're interested in the effects of inequality.

我們特別對不平等的影響感興趣。

So inequality has really become a defining feature

所以，不平等的確已成為

今日經濟格局的定義特徵。

of today's economic landscape.

But the challenges of inequality

但是不平等的挑戰

are not unique to the human world.

並不是人類世界獨有的。

I think as humans we tend to think that everything's unique to us,

我認為我們身為人類很容易以為 一切對人類都是特有的，

but organisms in nature

但是自然界中的有機體

must face relentless variation in their access to resources.

在取得資源時 必須面對各種無情的狀況，

How does a fungus that can again be meters long

一個有幾公尺長的真菌

change its trade strategy when it's exposed simultaneously

如何改變交易策略，

如果它同時接觸到 豐饒的土地及貧瘠的土地？

to a rich patch and a poor patch?

And, more generally,

更概略的說，

how do organisms in nature use trade to their advantage

自然界的有機體

在面對不確定的情況時， 要怎麼發揮貿易優勢

when they're faced with uncertainty

in terms of their access to resources?

以獲得資源？

Here's where I have to let you in on a secret:

我得在這裡跟大家說一個 鮮為人知的秘密：

studying trade underground is incredibly difficult.

研究地下交易其實非常困難。

You can't see where or when important trade deals take place.

你看不到重要交易發生的時間與地點。

So our group helped pioneer a method, a technology,

所以我們的團隊協助 首創了一個方法，一項科技，

whereby we could tag nutrients with nanoparticles,

讓我們以奈米粒子標出養分所在，

fluorescing nanoparticles called quantum dots.

一種稱為量子點的螢光奈米粒子。

What the quantum dots allow us to do

我們可以用量子點

is actually light up the nutrients

讓養分發亮，

so we can visually track their movements

所以我們可以看到它們移動的軌跡，

across the fungal network

它們如何橫跨整個真菌網絡，

and into the host root.

及進入寄主根部。

So this allows us finally to see the unseen,

所以這最終讓我們看到原本看不到的，

so we can study how fungi bargain at a small scale with their plant hosts.

所以我們可以研究

真菌如何與它們的植物寄主 在小範圍內討價還價。

So to study inequality,

所以要研究不平等，

we exposed a fungal network

我們把某個真菌網絡

to these varying concentrations of fluorescing phosphorus,

放在不同濃度的螢光磷下，

mimicking patches of abundance and scarcity

在這片人造土上模擬豐饒及貧瘠土。

across this artificial landscape.

We then carefully quantified fungal trade.

然後我們小心地量化真菌交易。

And we found two things.

我們發現兩件事。

The first thing we found

我們發現的第一件事，

was that inequality encouraged the fungus to trade more.

就是不平等會助長真菌做更多交易。

So I can use the word "encouraged" or "stimulated" or "forced,"

我可以用助長、刺激 或強迫這幾個字眼，

but the bottom line is that compared to control conditions,

但是最基本的情況是跟對照組相比，

inequality was associated with higher levels of trade.

不平等與更多的交易有關。

This is important,

這很重要，

because it suggests that evolving a trade partnership in nature

因為這意味著在自然界 不斷發展貿易夥伴，

can help organisms cope with the uncertainty of accessing resources.

可以幫助有機體 應付資源取得的不確定性。

Second, we found that, exposed to inequality,

第二，我們發現，遭受不平等狀態，

the fungus would move resources from the rich patch of the network,

真菌會把資源從網絡內 比較豐饒的那邊，

actively transport them to the poor side of the network.

主動運輸到比較貧瘠的那一邊。

Now, of course, we could see this

當然，我們可以看到這個現象，

because the patches were fluorescing in different colors.

因為兩邊用了不同顏色的螢光劑。

So at first, this result was incredibly puzzling.

所以一開始，這個結果令人匪夷所思。

Was it to help the poor side of the network?

這是為了幫助網絡內 比較窮的那一邊？

No. We found that the fungus gained more by first moving the resources

不是。我們發現 真菌可以取得更多資源，

只要它們先把資源 移到需求量大的地方。

to where demand was higher.

Simply by changing where across the network the fungus was trading,

只是改變真菌網絡裡的交易地點，

it could manipulate the value of those resources.

就能操縱這些資源的價值。

Now this stimulated us to really dig deeper into how information is shared.

這刺激我們深入研究 資訊到底是如何共享的。

It suggests a high level of sophistication,

這意味著高程度的複雜性，

or at least a medium level of sophistication

至少中程度的複雜性

in an organism with no cognition.

存在於沒有認知的有機體中。

How is it that a fungus can sense market conditions across its network

真菌到底怎麼意識到 自己網路內的市場狀況，

and then make calculations of where and when to trade?

然後計算在何時何地進行交易？

So we wanted to look about information and how it's shared across this network,

所以我們想研究一下資訊， 並看看這是怎麼在網絡內共享的，

how the fungus integrates cues.

真菌如何整合提示。

So to do that, what you need to do is dive deep in and get a higher resolution

要做這點，你需要做的

是深入網絡本身 以得到更佳的解析度。

into the network itself.

We began to study complex flows inside the hyphal network.

我們開始研究菌絲網絡內複雜的流動。

So what you're looking at right now is a living fungal network

你們現在看到的是活的真菌網絡，

with the cellular contents moving across it.

細胞內容物在裡面移動。

This is happening in real time,

這是即時狀態，

so you can see the time stamp up there.

你們可以看到上面的時間戳記。

So this is happening right now. This video isn't sped up.

所以這是現在正在進行的事。 這段影片沒有加速。

This is what is happening under our feet right now.

這是現在正在我們腳下發生的事。

And there's a couple of things that I want you to notice.

有幾件事我想請大家注意一下。

It speeds up, it slows down, it switches directions.

它會加速、減慢、轉方向。

So we're working now with biophysicists

所以現在我們跟生物物理學家合作，

to try to dissect this complexity.

試著抽絲剝繭。

How is the fungus using these complex flow patterns

真菌如何用這種複雜的流動模式

to share and process information

共享及處理資訊

and make these trade decisions?

並做出這些交易決定？

Are fungi better at making trade calculations than us?

真菌是否比我們更會算計？

Now here's where we can potentially borrow models from nature.

這點或許是我們 可以從大自然取經的地方。

We're increasingly reliant on computer algorithms

我們愈來愈依賴電腦演算法

to make us profitable trades in split-second time scales.

在瞬間做出會賺錢的交易。

But computer algorithms and fungi,

但是電腦演算法和真菌，

they both operate in similar, uncognitive ways.

兩者都以相當類似、 無認知的方式運作。

The fungi just happens to be a living machine.

只是真菌恰好是活的機器。

What would happen if we compare and compete

如果我們把兩者的交易策略 拿來比較和競爭會有什麼結果？

the trading strategies of these two?

Who would win?

誰會贏？

The tiny capitalist that's been around

這個從恐龍滅絕之前及之時 就存在的小小資本主義者？

since before and the fall of the dinosaurs?

My money is on the fungus.

我賭真菌會贏。

Thank you.

謝謝。

(Applause)

（掌聲）