What we'll learn about the brain in the next century | Sam Rodriques

Translator: Intari Pramudita Reviewer: Yolanda Raintina

I want to tell you guys something about neuroscience.

Saya ingin memberitahu Anda tentang ilmu saraf.

I'm a physicist by training.

Saya seorang fisikawan dalam pelatihan.

About three years ago, I left physics

Tiga tahun yang lalu, saya meninggalkan fisika.

to come and try to understand how the brain works.

dan beralih untuk mempelajari cara kerja otak.

And this is what I found.

Inilah yang saya temukan.

Lots of people are working on depression.

Banyak orang meneliti masalah depresi.

And that's really good,

Dan itu sangat bagus,

depression is something that we really want to understand.

karena kita ingin memahami segala sesuatu tentang depresi.

Here's how you do it:

Cara untuk memahaminya :

you take a jar and you fill it up, about halfway, with water.

Ambil toples, lalu isi separuhnya dengan air.

And then you take a mouse, and you put the mouse in the jar, OK?

Kemudian ambil seekor tikus, dan masukkan tikus itu ke dalam toples.

And the mouse swims around for a little while

Tikus itu akan berenang beberapa saat

and then at some point, the mouse gets tired

pada akhirnya, tikus itu kelelahan dan berhenti berenang.

and decides to stop swimming.

And when it stops swimming, that's depression.

Ketika tikus itu berhenti berenang, saat itulah ia depresi.

OK?

Oke?

And I'm from theoretical physics,

Saya mendalami fisika teoritis,

so I'm used to people making very sophisticated mathematical models

jadi saya biasanya membuat suatu pemodelan matematika yang rumit

to precisely describe physical phenomena,

untuk mendeskripsikan fenomena fisika secara detail.

so when I saw that this is the model for depression,

Jadi, saat melihat ini untuk memodelkannya

I though to myself, "Oh my God, we have a lot of work to do."

Saya berpikir, "Ya Tuhan, banyak sekali tugas kami."

(Laughter)

(Tertawa)

But this is a kind of general problem in neuroscience.

Ini adalah masalah umum dalam ilmu saraf.

So for example, take emotion.

Misalnya adalah emosi.

Lots of people want to understand emotion.

Banyak orang ingin mempelajari tentang emosi.

But you can't study emotion in mice or monkeys

Tapi Anda tak bisa mempelajari emosi pada tikus atau monyet

because you can't ask them

karena Anda tak bisa tanyakan apa yang mereka rasakan atau alami.

how they're feeling or what they're experiencing.

Sebaliknya, mereka yang mempelajari itu,

So instead, people who want to understand emotion,

mereka akhirnya mempelajari perilaku motivasi,

typically end up studying what's called motivated behavior,

which is code for "what the mouse does when it really, really wants cheese."

misalnya, "apa yang akan dilakukan tikus jika ia sangat menginginkan keju."

OK, I could go on and on.

Banyak contoh lainnya.

I mean, the point is, the NIH spends about 5.5 billion dollars a year

Maksud saya, intinya adalah NIH menghabiskan 5,5 miliar dolar setahun

on neuroscience research.

untuk penelitian ilmu saraf.

And yet there have been almost no significant improvements in outcomes

Tapi, hampir tidak ada kemajuan pada pasien penyakit otak dalam 40 tahun ini.

for patients with brain diseases in the past 40 years.

And I think a lot of that is basically due to the fact

Dan saya pikir pada dasarnya ini karena

that mice might be OK as a model for cancer or diabetes,

tikus biasanya dijadikan model untuk kanker atau diabetes

but the mouse brain is just not sophisticated enough

tetapi otak tikus kurang canggih

to reproduce human psychology or human brain disease.

untuk mewakili psikologis atau penyakit otak manusia.

OK?

Oke?

So if the mouse models are so bad, why are we still using them?

Jadi, jika model tikus sangat buruk, mengapa kami masih menggunakannya?

Sebenarnya, dasarnya adalah

Well, it basically boils down to this:

the brain is made up of neurons

otak terdiri dari neuron, yaitu sel-sel yang saling mengirim sinyal listrik.

which are these little cells that send electrical signals to each other.

If you want to understand how the brain works,

Jika ingin memahami cara kerja otak,

you have to be able to measure the electrical activity of these neurons.

Anda harus mengukur aktivitas listrik neuron.

But to do that, you have to get really close to the neurons

Untuk melakukan itu, Anda harus berinteraksi dengan neuron

with some kind of electrical recording device or a microscope.

menggunakan alat perekam listrik atau mikroskop.

And so you can do that in mice and you can do it in monkeys,

Jadi Anda bisa menggunakannya pada tikus atau monyet

because you can physically put things into their brain

karena Anda bisa masukkan benda ke otak mereka

but for some reason we still can't do that in humans, OK?

tapi kami masih tidak bisa melakukannya pada manusia.

So instead, we've invented all these proxies.

Jadi kami menciptakan semua proxy ini.

So the most popular one is probably this,

Proxy yang paling umum adalah MRI dan fMRI

functional MRI, fMRI,

which allows you to make these pretty pictures like this,

yang bisa menghasilkan gambar menarik seperti ini,

that show which parts of your brain light up

yang menunjukkan bagian otak yang bekerja saat Anda melakukan berbagai aktivitas.

when you're engaged in different activities.

But this is a proxy.

Ini hanyalah proxy.

You're not actually measuring neural activity here.

Anda tidak mengukur aktivitas saraf.

What you're doing is you're measuring, essentially,

Yang Anda lakukan adalah mengukur aliran darah di otak.

like, blood flow in the brain.

Where there's more blood.

Saat lebih banyak darah

Sebenarnya ada lebih banyak oksigen. Anda mengerti, kan?

It's actually where there's more oxygen, but you get the idea, OK?

Hal lain yang bisa Anda lakukan adalah

The other thing that you can do is you can do this --

electroencephalography -- you can put these electrodes on your head, OK?

electroencephalography yang dapat Anda pakai di kepala,

And then you can measure your brain waves.

Lalu Anda dapat mengukur gelombang otak.

And here, you're actually measuring electrical activity.

Sebenarnya Anda mengukur aktivitas listrik.

But you're not measuring the activity of neurons.

Tapi Anda tidak mengukur aktivitas neuron.

You're measuring these electrical currents,

Yang Anda ukur adalah arus listrik yang mengalir bolak balik di otak Anda.

sloshing back and forth in your brain.

Sesungguhnya teknik ini mengukur hal yang tidak tepat.

So the point is just that these technologies that we have

are really measuring the wrong thing.

Because, for most of the diseases that we want to understand --

Sebab, sebagian besar penyakit yang ingin kita pahami, misalnya Parkinson,

like, Parkinson's is the classic example.

In Parkinson's, there's one particular kind of neuron deep in your brain

Pada Parkinson, ada satu jenis neuron otak yang bertanggung jawab pada penyakit ini,

that is responsible for the disease,

and these technologies just don't have the resolution that you need

dan teknologi belum mampu memecahkan masalah itu.

to get at that.

And so that's why we're still stuck with the animals.

Karena itulah kami masih memakai hewan.

Not that anyone wants to be studying depression

Bukan berarti kami mempelajari depresi dengan menaruh tikus di toples, kan?

by putting mice into jars, right?

It's just that there's this pervasive sense that it's not possible

Hanya saja, kami tidak mungkin meneliti aktivitas neuron pada manusia sehat.

to look at the activity of neurons in healthy humans.

Jadi inilah yang akan saya lakukan.

So here's what I want to do.

I want to take you into the future.

Bayangkan masa depan.

To have a look at one way in which I think it could potentially be possible.

Menurut saya, ada satu cara yang mungkin untuk dapat dilakukan.

And I want to preface this by saying, I don't have all the details.

Saya belum punya semua detailnya.

So I'm just going to provide you with a kind of outline.

Jadi saya akan ceritakan garis besarnya saja.

But we're going to go the year 2100.

Kita akan menuju tahun 2100.

Now what does the year 2100 look like?

Seperti apa tahun 2100?

Pertama, iklimnya lebih panas.

Well, to start with, the climate is a bit warmer that what you're used to.

(Laughter)

(Tertawa)

And that robotic vacuum cleaner that you know and love

Dan robot penghisap debu andalan Anda, mengalami beberapa perubahan,

went through a few generations,

and the improvements were not always so good.

dan perubahannya tidak begitu baik.

(Laughter)

(Tertawa)

It was not always for the better.

Tidak selalu menjadi lebih baik.

But actually, in the year 2100 most things are surprisingly recognizable.

Namun sebenarnya, di tahun 2100, perubahan-perubahannya dapat dikenali.

It's just the brain is totally different.

Otak mengalami perubahan besar.

For example, in the year 2100,

Misalnya pada 2100,

kita tahu penyebab Alzheimer.

we understand the root causes of Alzheimer's.

So we can deliver targeted genetic therapies or drugs

Jadi dapat kita obati dengan terapi atau obat genetik

to stop the degenerative process before it begins.

untuk mencegah proses degeneratif.

So how did we do it?

Bagaimana caranya?

Well, there were essentially three steps.

Pada dasarnya ada tiga langkah.

The first step was that we had to figure out

Pertama, kami harus mencari cara untuk mendapatkan arus listrik melalui tengkorak

some way to get electrical connections through the skull

so we could measure the electrical activity of neurons.

sehingga kita dapat mengukur aktivitas listrik neuron.

And not only that, it had to be easy and risk-free.

Tak hanya itu, cara itu harus mudah dan tanpa resiko.

Something that basically anyone would be OK with,

Suatu hal yang semua orang tak keberatan, seperti menindik telinga.

like getting a piercing.

Because back in 2017,

Karena pada tahun 2017,

the only way that we knew of to get through the skull

satu-satunya cara untuk menembus tengkorak

was to drill these holes the size of quarters.

adalah dengan mengebor lubang kecil.

Anda pasti tak akan mau mengalaminya.

You would never let someone do that to you.

So in the 2020s,

Jadi pada tahun 2020,

people began to experiment -- rather than drilling these gigantic holes,

orang-orang mulai bereksperimen, bukan dengan membuat lubang raksasa,

drilling microscopic holes, no thicker than a piece of hair.

tapi mengebor lubang mikroskopis, yang lebih tipis dari sehelai rambut.

And the idea here was really for diagnosis --

Ide ini sebenarnya untuk diagnosis,

there are lots of times in the diagnosis of brain disorders

banyak penyakit otak yang perlu diamati aktivitas saraf di dalam tengkoraknya

when you would like to be able to look at the neural activity beneath the skull

and being able to drill these microscopic holes

dan melubanginya dengan saangat kecil akan memudahkannya, termasuk bagi pasien.

would make that much easier for the patient.

In the end, it would be like getting a shot.

Ini rasanya seperti disuntik.

You just go in and you sit down

Anda masuk ke ruangan dan duduk, dan sesuatu masuk ke kepala Anda

and there's a thing that comes down on your head,

ada rasa sakit sesaat lalu selesai,

and a momentary sting and then it's done,

dan Anda beraktivitas seperti biasa.

and you can go back about your day.

So we're eventually able to do it

Jadi, kami melakukannya dengan menggunakan laser untuk mengebor.

using lasers to drill the holes.

Dengan laser, semua cepat dan mudah,

And with the lasers, it was fast and extremely reliable,

you couldn't even tell the holes were there,

bahkan Anda tak bisa melihat bekas lubangnya,

seperti Anda tak sadar ada satu rambut yang hilang.

any more than you could tell that one of your hairs was missing.

And I know it might sound crazy, using lasers to drill holes in your skull,

Memang ini terdengar gila, menggunakan laser untuk melubangi tengkorak,

but back in 2017,

tetapi pada tahun 2017,

people were OK with surgeons shooting lasers into their eyes

ahli bedah menggunakan laser untuk mengoperasi mata.

for corrective surgery

So when you're already here, it's not that big of a step.

Jadi itu bukanlah masalah besar.

OK?

Oke?

So the next step, that happened in the 2030s,

Jadi langkah berikutnya pada tahun 2030an,

was that it's not just about getting through the skull.

bukan hanya menembus tengkorak.

To measure the activity of neurons,

Untuk mengukur aktivitas neuron, kita harus masuk ke jaringan otak.

you have to actually make it into the brain tissue itself.

And the risk, whenever you put something into the brain tissue,

Risikonya, jika sesuatu dimasukkan ke jaringan otak

hal itu dapat menyebabkan stroke.

is essentially that of stroke.

That you would hit a blood vessel and burst it,

Bisa saja kena pembuluh darah dan menyebabkan stroke.

and that causes a stroke.

So, by the mid 2030s, we had invented these flexible probes

Jadi pada pertengahan tahun 2030, kami punya suatu alat yang elastis

that were capable of going around blood vessels,

yang dapat mengelilingi pembuluh darah, bukan menembusnya.

rather than through them.

And thus, we could put huge batteries of these probes

Alat ini menggunakan baterai, yang dimasukkan ke dalam otak pasien,

into the brains of patients

and record from thousands of their neurons without any risk to them.

lalu merekam ribuan neuron tanpa adanya risiko.

And what we discovered, sort of to our surprise,

Hal yang mengejutkan dalam penemuan kami adalah

is that the neurons that we could identify

neuron yang kami identifikasi tidak merespons ide atau emosi,

were not responding to things like ideas or emotion,

which was what we had expected.

yang semula menjadi dugaan kami.

They were mostly responding to things like Jennifer Aniston

Mereka merespons hal-hal seperti Jennifer Aniston

or Halle Berry

atau Halle Berry

atau Justin Trudeau

or Justin Trudeau.

I mean --

Maksud saya--

(Laughter)

(Tertawa)

In hindsight, we shouldn't have been that surprised.

Sebenarnya itu tidak terlalu mengejutkan.

I mean, what do your neurons spend most of their time thinking about?

Maksud saya, apa yang sering dipikirkan oleh neuron-neuron Anda?

(Laughter)

(Tertawa)

But really, the point is that

Tapi intinya adalah

this technology enabled us to begin studying neuroscience in individuals.

teknologi ini mampu mempelajari ilmu saraf pada manusia.

So much like the transition to genetics, at the single cell level,

Sama seperti transisi genetika pada tingkat sel,

kita bisa mempelajari ilmu saraf pada tingkat manusia.

we started to study neuroscience, at the single human level.

But we weren't quite there yet.

Tapi kami belum sampai ke sana.

Because these technologies

Karena teknologi ini terbatas pada bidang medis,

were still restricted to medical applications,

which meant that we were studying sick brains, not healthy brains.

artinya kami mempelajari otak yang sakit, bukan otak yang sehat.

Karena seaman apa pun teknologi,

Because no matter how safe your technology is,

Anda tak bisa memasukkan sesuatu ke otak seseorang hanya untuk penelitian.

you can't stick something into someone's brain

for research purposes.

They have to want it.

Mereka harus sukarela.

And why would they want it?

Lalu mengapa mereka harus bersedia?

Because as soon as you have an electrical connection to the brain,

Karena sambungan listrik di otak akan dihubungkan ke komputer.

you can use it to hook the brain up to a computer.

Oh, well, you know, the general public was very skeptical at first.

Tentu saja, awalnya, publik sangat meragukannya.

I mean, who wants to hook their brain up to their computers?

Siapa yang mau otaknya dihubungkan ke komputer?

Well just imagine being able to send an email with a thought.

Bayangkan saja menulis email hanya dengan memikirkannya.

(Tertawa)

(Laughter)

Imagine being able to take a picture with your eyes, OK?

Bayangkan Anda bisa memotret dengan menggunakan mata.

(Laughter)

(Tertawa)

Imagine never forgetting anything anymore,

Bayangkan Anda tidak akan pernah melupakan apapun

karena semua ingatan tersimpan permanen pada perangkat,

because anything that you choose to remember

will be stored permanently on a hard drive somewhere,

able to be recalled at will.

yang bisa diakses kapan saja.

(Laughter)

(Tertawa)

The line here between crazy and visionary

Di sini batasnya antara kegilaan dan khayalan yang tak jelas.

was never quite clear.

But the systems were safe.

Tapi sistemnya aman.

So when the FDA decided to deregulate these laser-drilling systems, in 2043,

Ketika FDA menghapuskan sistem pengeboran laser, pada tahun 2043,

commercial demand just exploded.

permintaan penggunaannya akan melonjak.

Orang-orang akan mencantumkan email mereka dengan

People started signing their emails,

"Please excuse any typos.

"Maaf bila ada salah pengetikan. Dikirim dari otak saya."

Sent from my brain."

(Laughter)

(Tertawa)

Commercial systems popped up left and right,

Para penjual bermunculan menawarkan penghubung saraf terbaru dan terhebat.

offering the latest and greatest in neural interfacing technology.

There were 100 electrodes.

Ada 100 elektroda.

A thousand electrodes.

Ada ribuan elektroda.

High bandwidth for only 99.99 a month.

Bandwith kecepatan tinggi 99.99 sebulan.

(Laughter)

(Tertawa)

Soon, everyone had them.

Lalu, semua orang memilikinya.

And that was the key.

Itu kuncinya.

Because, in the 2050s, if you were a neuroscientist,

Karena pada tahun 2050an, jika Anda seorang ahli saraf,

you could have someone come into your lab essentially from off the street.

Anda bisa undang siapa pun di jalanan untuk datang ke lab.

And you could have them engaged in some emotional task

Anda bisa meneliti emosi manusia, perilaku sosial, atau penalaran abstrak,

or social behavior or abstract reasoning,

sesuatu yang Anda tak bisa pelajari pada tikus.

things you could never study in mice.

And you could record the activity of their neurons

Dan Anda bisa merekam aktivitas neuron mereka

using the interfaces that they already had.

dengan menggunakan antarmuka yang telah ada.

Anda juga bisa tanya mereka tentang apa yang mereka alami.

And then you could also ask them about what they were experiencing.

Jadi hubungan antara psikologi dan ilmu saraf

So this link between psychology and neuroscience

that you could never make in the animals, was suddenly there.

akhirnya dapat dipelajari pada manusia.

So perhaps the classic example of this

Contoh umumnya adalah penemuan aktivitas neuron pada pemahaman.

was the discovery of the neural basis for insight.

That "Aha!" moment, the moment it all comes together, it clicks.

Momen "Aha", ketika semua masuk akal, cocok.

And this was discovered by two scientists in 2055,

Ini akan ditemukan oleh dua ilmuwan pada 2055,

Barry and Late,

Barry dan Late,

yang mengamati dorsal prefrontal cortex,

who observed, in the dorsal prefrontal cortex,

how in the brain of someone trying to understand an idea,

cara otak seseorang untuk mencoba memahami sebuah ide,

populasi neuron yang berbeda akan mengatur ulang dirinya--

how different populations of neurons would reorganize themselves --

you're looking at neural activity here in orange --

Bagian oranye adalah aktivitas neuron

until finally their activity aligns in a way that leads to positive feedback.

lalu aktivitasnya akan menghasilkan masukan positif

Right there.

Di sini.

That is understanding.

Itulah pemahaman.

So finally, we were able to get at the things that make us human.

Jadi, kita bisa tahu esensi dari manusia.

And that's what really opened the way to major insights from medicine.

Itulah yang akan menjadi solusi dari segi medis.

Because, starting in the 2060s,

Karena mulai tahun 2060an,

with the ability to record the neural activity

dengan kemampuan merekam aktivitas neuron

in the brains of patients with these different mental diseases,

pada otak berbagai pasien dengan penyakit mental,

rather than defining the diseases on the basis of their symptoms,

daripada menentukan penyakitnya berdasarkan gejalanya,

seperti yang kita alami pada awal abad ini,

as we had at the beginning of the century,

kita bisa menentukannya berdasarkan patologi pada tingkat neuron.

we started to define them

on the basis of the actual pathology that we observed at the neural level.

So for example, in the case of ADHD,

Misalnya pada kasus ADHD,

we discovered that there are dozens of different diseases,

kami menemukan ada berbagai penyakit yang pada abad ini, semuanya disebut ADHD

all of which had been called ADHD at the start of the century,

yang sebenarnyanya tidak saling berhubungan,

that actually had nothing to do with each other,

kecuali terdaapat gejala yang sama.

except that they had similar symptoms.

And they needed to be treated in different ways.

Mereka harus diobati dengan cara berbeda.

So it was kind of incredible, in retrospect,

Jadi cukup menakjubkan

that at the beginning of the century,

pada awal abad ini, kami mengobati berbagai penyakit itu

we had been treating all those different diseases

with the same drug,

dengan obat yang sama,

just by giving people amphetamine, basically is what we were doing.

hanya dengan memberi mereka amfetamin.

Schizophrenia dan depresi juga demikian.

And schizophrenia and depression are the same way.

So rather than prescribing drugs to people essentially at random,

Jadi daripada meresepkan obat yang sama

as we had,

seperti dulu,

we learned how to predict which drugs would be most effective

kami belajar bagaimana memprediksi obat yang paling efektif untuk pasien tertentu,

in which patients,

and that just led to this huge improvement in outcomes.

dan hasilnya akan meningkat dengan pesat.

OK, I want to bring you back now to the year 2017.

Saya ingin kita kembali ke tahun 2017.

Mungkin akan terdengar seperti sindiran atau dibuat-buat.

Some of this may sound satirical or even far fetched.

And some of it is.

Beberapa di antaranya.

I mean, I can't actually see into the future.

Saya tak bisa lihat ke masa depan.

I don't actually know

Saya sungguh tidak tahu

if we're going to be drilling hundreds or thousands of microscopic holes

akankah kita mengebor ratusan atau ribuan lubang mikroskopis

di kepala kita dalam 30 tahun ini.

in our heads in 30 years.

But what I can tell you

Tapi saya beritahu Anda

is that we're not going to make any progress

bahwa kita tak akan mengalami kemajuan

towards understanding the human brain or human diseases

untuk dapat memahami otak manusia atau penyakitnya

until we figure out how to get at the electrical activity of neurons

sampai kita menemukan cara untuk mendapatkan aktivitas listrik neuron

in healthy humans.

pada manusia yang sehat.

And almost no one is working on figuring out how to do that today.

Dan saat ini, hampir tak ada yang menelitinya.

That is the future of neuroscience.

Itulah masa depan ilmu saraf.

And I think it's time for neuroscientists to put down the mouse brain

Saya pikir, ini saatnya bagi ahli saraf beralih dari otak tikus

and to dedicate the thought and investment necessary

lalu mendedikasikan pemikiran dan investasi yang ada

to understand the human brain and human disease.

untuk mempelajari otak manusia dan penyakitnya.

Thank you.

Terima kasih.

(Applause)

(Tepuk tangan)