Kathryn A. Whitehead: The tiny balls of fat that could revolutionize medicine | TED

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2021-08-11 ・ TED


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Kathryn A. Whitehead: The tiny balls of fat that could revolutionize medicine | TED

89,994 views ・ 2021-08-11

TED


Please double-click on the English subtitles below to play the video.

00:13
What if I told you that the pandemic will save the lives of millions of people?
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It's a difficult thing to consider,
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given how many loved ones we've already lost.
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But throughout the course of human history,
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massive public health crises
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have resulted in innovation in health care and technology.
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For example, the Black Death gave rise to the Gutenberg press
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and the 1918 flu pandemic led to modern vaccine technology.
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The COVID-19 pandemic has and will be no different.
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Just look at our vaccines --
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normally developed over many years,
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and the mRNA vaccines were deployed in a mind-blowing 11 months.
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How is that even possible?
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It was possible because scientists have been working for many years
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to get us to the point where we could use mRNA quickly
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in an emergency situation.
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Specifically,
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we've been working on how to help mRNA with its biggest problem,
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which is that it doesn't normally go to the right places inside of our bodies.
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Fortunately, we got around that problem just in time,
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and I'd like to tell you about the technology that we use to do it.
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When mRNA is administered,
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it's injected into our muscles or our bloodstream,
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but we actually need it to go inside of our cells.
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Unfortunately, mRNA is fragile,
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and our bodies will destroy it before it goes very far.
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You can think of mRNA like a glass vase that you'd like to send in the mail
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without a box and bubble wrap.
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It'll break long before it's been delivered.
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And without an address on the box,
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your postal delivery service will have no idea where to take it.
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And so if we're going to use mRNA as a therapeutic,
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it needs our help.
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It needs protection, and it needs to be told where to go.
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And that's where I come in.
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For over five decades, scientists and engineers like myself
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have been creating the shipping materials for nucleic acid drugs,
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like DNA and RNA.
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Through trial and error, we've created packages
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that deliver intact vases to the wrong address;
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that delivered to the right address but with a broken vase;
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packages that get ripped apart by attacking dogs;
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and packages that throw out the mail carrier's back.
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It's taken many years to get the science right.
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Let me show you the result,
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these tiny balls of fat that we call lipid nanoparticles.
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Let me tell you what they are and how they work.
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So first of all, "nano" just means really, really small.
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Think of how small a person is compared to the diameter of the earth.
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That's how small a nanoparticle is compared to the person.
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These nanoparticles are made up of several fatty molecules called lipids.
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Fat is an awesome packing material --
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nice and bouncy.
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Interestingly, our cells are also surrounded by fat
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to keep them flexible and protected.
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Years ago, scientists had the idea to create lipid nanoparticles
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that would act like a Trojan horse.
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Because the lipids in the nanoparticle look similar
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to the membranes that surround our cells,
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the cells are willing to bring the nanoparticle inside,
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and that's when the mRNA is released into the cell.
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So what, exactly, are the lipids in these nanoparticles?
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There are four ingredients in addition to the mRNA,
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and I'll tell you about each one.
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First, there's a lipid called a phospholipid.
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This is the primary ingredient in our cell membranes,
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which are the walls of fat that separate the insides of our cells
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from everything that surrounds them.
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Phospholipids have a head that likes water
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and a tail that likes other fatty things.
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So when you throw a bunch of phospholipids together in water,
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they form this beautiful structure called a lipid bilayer.
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Here, the heads face the inside and the outside of the cell,
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which is water,
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and the fat-loving parts of the molecule hang out together in the middle.
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In lipid nanoparticles,
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phospholipids have a similar role
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of keeping all of the other ingredients organized.
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Second, there's a lipid called cholesterol.
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Why, if cholesterol has a bad reputation,
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would we want to use it in a therapeutic nanoparticle?
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It turns out that while cholesterol can be bad when it's in our bloodstream,
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it's actually a really good thing for our cell membranes.
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And that's because those phospholipids I just told you about,
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they are entirely too free with themselves,
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and they are prone to falling apart.
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Cholesterol is a stiff molecule
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that wedges itself in between the other lipids
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to fill in the gaps and hold them all together.
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It plays a similar role in our lipid nanoparticles.
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It provides structural support so the nanoparticles don't fall apart
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in between the injection and when they get into our cells.
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Third, there's a lipid called an ionizable lipid.
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Here, "ionizable" means that when these particles are in the bloodstream,
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they're neutrally charged, which helps with their safety.
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Then they switch to a positive charge inside of our cells,
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which helps them release the mRNA.
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Ionizable lipids are special because they have to be made in the lab,
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and scientists around the world
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have tested tens of thousands of these materials
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to find ones that are good at delivering mRNA safely.
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And because they're made in the lab,
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they tend to be proprietary to the company that invented them.
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So, for example, Moderna and BioNTech, the company that partnered with Pfizer,
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they discovered different ionizable lipids,
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and that is the only important ingredient in their COVID-19 vaccines that differ.
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And even then, their ionizable lipids aren't even that different,
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which is reassuring, because when independent groups of scientists
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converge on similar solutions,
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it's easier to trust the result.
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Finally, one more ingredient.
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This one is a polymer called polyethylene glycol.
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So let's call it PEG. That's much easier.
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PEG is a water-loving molecule.
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So it surrounds the lipid nanoparticle and it holds it all together.
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You can think of the other three lipids as the box and the bubble wrap
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for the mRNA,
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and the PEG as the packing tape.
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You may have heard in the news about a tiny fraction of people
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that have allergic responses to the vaccine.
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There is some evidence that PEG could be contributing to these allergic reactions.
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And that's because people are routinely exposed to PEG
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in cosmetic and household products,
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and some people have already developed antibodies against PEG.
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But why would this happen to some people and not to others?
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It turns out that every person's immune system is different,
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and just the same way that some people are allergic to latex,
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other people are allergic to PEG.
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It's important to keep in mind, however,
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that PEG has had a long history of safe use
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as part of FDA-approved drug formulations,
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and these vaccine allergies could be caused by things other than PEG.
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More research is needed to get to the bottom of these side effects.
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All right, so let's take a step back and look at our whole nanoparticle.
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Beautiful, right?
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When these ingredients all fit together nicely,
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the result is a deliverywoman's dream.
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In the case of the vaccines,
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after these nanoparticles get injected into our muscle,
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they take the mRNA into our cells.
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There, the mRNA acts like an instruction manual
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that tells our cells to make a foreign protein,
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in this case, the coronavirus spike protein.
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When our immune cells see the spike protein,
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they rush to protect us from it,
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and they teach themselves to remember it,
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so that they can kill it if it ever returns.
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As we speak,
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the mRNA vaccines are out there saving lives from the coronavirus.
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They were our first and best tool to combat this nightmare,
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and they are our best hope of responding swiftly to viral variance
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because we can keep our lipid nanoparticle packaging the same,
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and all we have to do is swap out the mRNA that's inside.
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But here's the best part:
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for mRNA therapeutics,
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these vaccines are only the beginning.
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mRNA can be used to treat or cure many diseases.
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So in the future, we will likely have treatments for many terrible diseases,
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including cystic fibrosis,
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muscular dystrophy
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and sickle cell anemia.
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These diseases are caused by mutated proteins,
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and we can use mRNA to ask our cells
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to make the correct version of these proteins.
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We'll have treatments for cancer -- breast, blood, lungs -- you name it.
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Here, we'll use mRNA to teach our immune cells
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how to find and kill cancer cells.
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And then, if we're lucky, we'll have vaccines
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against some of the most deadly and feared pathogens across the globe,
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including malaria, Ebola and HIV.
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Some of these products are already in clinical trials,
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and the success of the COVID-19 vaccines will pave the way
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for future generations of these therapies.
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This is how the pandemic will save the lives of millions.
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It catalyzed the most rapid vaccine development in history
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and brought to life a niche, previously unapproved form of technology.
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And in our desperation, we gave that technology a chance.
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Now we're collecting long-term safety and efficacy data
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from hundreds of millions of people.
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And with these data, interest in the technology,
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funding for the technology
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and trust in the technology
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will continue to grow.
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Looking ahead,
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the packaging and delivery of mRNA to the right organs and tissues
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will continue to be one of the most significant challenges
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to implementing this technology.
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And so my colleagues and I are going to be busy for a very long time.
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Ultimately, I'm here with a message of hope.
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We are on the cusp of a revolution.
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mRNA is about to change the world forever,
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and it's all thanks to these fatty little balls
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that take this miracle medicine to exactly where it's needed.
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Thank you.
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(Applause)
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