Steven Johnson: How humanity doubled life expectancy in a century | TED

91,933 views ใƒป 2021-12-09

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ืื ื ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืชืจื’ื•ื: zeeva livshitz ืขืจื™ื›ื”: Ido Dekkers
ืœืคื ื™ื›ื ื ื™ืกื•ื™ ืžื—ืฉื‘ืชื™ ืงืœืืกื™
ืฉื ื•ืขื“ ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ื—ืฉื™ื‘ืชื›ื ืœื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืœื˜ื•ื•ื— ืืจื•ืš
ื•ื™ืฆื™ืื” ืžืžืขื’ืœ ื”ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ื”ื™ื•ืžื™.
00:12
Here's a classic thought experiment
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ื•ื–ื” ืขื•ื‘ื“ ื›ืš:
00:15
that's designed to trick your brain into thinking long-term
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ืื ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ ื”ื™ื” ื™ื•ืฆื ืคืขื ืื—ืช ื‘ืžืื” ืฉื ื”,
00:20
and getting out of the daily news cycle.
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ืžื” ืชื”ื™ื” ื”ื›ื•ืชืจืช ื‘ืขืžื•ื“ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ?
00:23
And it goes like this:
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00:24
if a newspaper came out once a century,
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โ€œื ื™ืฆื—ื ื• ืืช ื”ื ืืฆื™ืโ€ ืื• โ€œื ื—ืชื ื• ืขืœ ื”ื™ืจื—โ€œ,
ืื• โ€œื™ืฆืจื ื• ืืช ื”ืื™ื ื˜ืจื ื˜โ€œ?
00:30
what would the front page banner headline be?
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ืœื“ืขืชื™, ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืฉืœ ืžืกืคืจ ืื—ื“,
00:33
โ€œWe defeated the Nazis,โ€ or โ€œlanded on the moon,โ€
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ืื•ืœื™ ื”ืžื“ื“ ื”ื›ื™ ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื”ืชืงื“ืžื•ืช ืฉืœื ื•.
00:37
or "built the Internet"?
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00:39
I would argue that it would be the story of a single number,
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ืชื•ื—ืœืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ืœื™ื“ื”
00:43
maybe the most elemental measure of progress that we have.
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ืื•ืจืš ื”ื–ืžืŸ
ืฉืื“ื ืžืžื•ืฆืข ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืฆืคื•ืช ืœื—ื™ื•ืช
ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื ืชื•ืŸ ื•ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ื ืชื•ืŸ.
00:48
Life expectancy at birth.
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ืœืคื ื™ ืžืื” ืฉื ื”, ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืžื“ื•ื“,
00:51
The length of time
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00:52
that the average person can expect to live
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ืชื•ื—ืœืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืžืžื•ืฆืขืช ื‘ืขื•ืœื ืขืžื“ื” ื‘ืขืจืš ื‘ืืžืฆืข ืฉื ื•ืช ื”ืฉืœื•ืฉื™ื.
00:55
in a given place at a given time.
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00:58
One hundred years ago, as best as we can measure,
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ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž-70.
01:01
the average global life expectancy stood somewhere in the mid 30s.
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ืื– ื‘ืžืื” ืื—ืช,
ื”ื›ืคืœื ื• ืืช ืชื•ื—ืœืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช.
01:07
Today, it's just over 70.
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ื•ื›ื“ื™ ืœืชืช ืชื—ื•ืฉื” ืฉืœ ืื™ืš ื–ื” ื ืจืื” ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ื” ื’ื™ืื•ื’ืจืคื™ืช
ื”ืกืชื›ืœื• ืขืœ ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ื–ืืช, ืขืœ ื”ืžืคื•ืช ื”ืืœื”.
01:11
So in one century,
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ืืœื” ื”ื ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืื“ื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ,
01:12
we doubled global life expectancy.
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โ€œื”ืขื•ืœื ืฉืœื ื• ื‘ื ืชื•ื ื™ืโ€ (OWID)
01:15
And to give a sense of what this looks like geographically,
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ื–ื” ื”ืขื•ืœื ื‘ืฉื ืช 1950.
01:18
take a look at this image, these maps.
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ื•ื‘ื›ื—ื•ืœ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื‘ื”ืŸ ืชื•ื—ืœืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืขื•ืœื” ืขืœ 70 ืฉื ื”.
01:20
This is data courtesy of the great organization,
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01:22
Our World in Data.
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ืืชื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉืืœื• ืจืง ื—ืžืฉ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื‘ืฆืคื•ืŸ ืื™ืจื•ืคื”. ื–ื”ื• ื–ื”.
01:24
This is the world in 1950.
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01:26
And in blue are the countries where life expectancy is more than 70.
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ื•ื‘ืื“ื•ื, ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืฉื‘ื”ืŸ ืชื•ื—ืœืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ื™ื ืžืชื—ืช ืœ-45.
01:31
You can see it's just five countries in northern Europe. That's it.
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ื–ื” ื›ืฉืœื™ืฉ ืžื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
01:36
And in red, these are the countries where life expectancy is below 45.
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ืื– ื ืชืงื“ื ืžื”ืจ ืœื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืขื“ื›ื ื™ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ.
2015 - ื‘ื›ื—ื•ืœ, ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื‘ื”ืŸ ืชื•ื—ืœืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืžืขืœ 70.
01:42
It's about a third of the planet.
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ืชืจืื• ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืืœื”.
01:45
So fast-forward to more recent history.
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ื•ื‘ืื“ื•ื, ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื‘ื”ืŸ ื”ื™ื ืžืชื—ืช ืœ -45.
01:47
2015 -- in blue the countries where life expectancy is above 70.
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ืื™ืŸ ืื“ื•ื ื‘ืžืคื”
ื›ื™ ืื™ืŸ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื‘ื”ืŸ ืชื•ื—ืœืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ื™ื ืžืชื—ืช ืœ -45.
01:53
Look at all that life.
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01:55
And in red, the countries where it's below 45.
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื™ืฉ ืžืขื˜ ืžืื•ื“ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืฉื‘ื”ืŸ ื”ื™ื ืžืชื—ืช ืœ-60.
ื–ื”ื• ื”ื™ืฉื’ ื™ื•ืฆื ื“ื•ืคืŸ.
01:59
There's no red on the map
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02:00
because there are no countries where life expectancy is below 45.
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ื•ืœืคืขืžื™ื ืชืฉืžืขื• ืื ืฉื™ื ืื•ืžืจื™ื
ืฉืชื•ื—ืœืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื•ื”ื”ืชืงื“ืžื•ืช ืžืกื•ื’ ื–ื”
02:04
In fact, there are very few where it's below 60.
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ื”ื™ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ืจืง ืืฉืœื™ื” ืกื˜ื˜ื™ืกื˜ื™ืช.
02:06
This is an extraordinary achievement.
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ืฉื”ืฉืชืคืจื ื• ืขืงื‘ ื”ืคื—ืชืช ืชืžื•ืชืช ืชื™ื ื•ืงื•ืช,
02:09
And you'll sometimes hear people say
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02:11
that life expectancy and this kind of progress
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ื•ืฉืืจ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืฉืœื ื• ื‘ืขืฆื ืœื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื›ืœ ื›ืš.
02:13
is actually just a statistical illusion.
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ื•ื–ื” ื ื›ื•ืŸ ืฉืชืžื•ืชืช ื”ืชื™ื ื•ืงื•ืช ื”ื•ืคื—ืชื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื“ืจืžื˜ื™
02:16
That we got better at reducing infant mortality,
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ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืžืื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช.
ืื‘ืœ ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื™ื ื˜ื ืกื™ื‘ื™ ืžื–ื”.
02:20
but the rest of our lives are actually not all that different.
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ืื ืชืกืชื›ืœื• ืขืœ ืื™ื ืคื•ื’ืจืคื™ืงื” ืžื•ืงื“ืžืช ื–ื•
02:23
And it is true that infant mortality has been dramatically reduced
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ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืกื˜ื˜ื™ืกื˜ื™ืงืื™ ื”ื•ื•ื™ืงื˜ื•ืจื™ืื ื™ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ
02:26
over the last hundred years.
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02:28
But the story is much richer and more intense than that.
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ื•ื•ื™ืœื™ืื ืคืืจ,
ืฉืžื ืกื” ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ืืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ื”ืชืžื•ืชื” ืœืคื™ ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ื’ื™ืœ
02:31
If you take a look at this early infographic
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ื‘ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ, ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ืฉื ื•ืช ื” -40 ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื” -19.
02:34
by the great Victorian statistician
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ืื ื™ ืžื•ืฆื ืžืฉื”ื• ื”ืจื•ืื™ ืœื”ืคืœื™ื ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืชืจืฉื™ื ื”ื–ื”.
02:36
William Farr,
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02:38
which is attempting to show mortality rates by age group
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ื™ืฉ ื›ืืŸ ืื“ื ืœืœื ืžื—ืฉื‘ื™ื, ืœืœื ืื™ื ื˜ืจื ื˜, ืœืœื ืืงืกืœ,
02:42
in London in the early 1840s.
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02:44
I find something incredibly heroic about this chart.
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ืฉืžื ืกื” ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืžืฉื”ื• ืงืฉื” ืœื”ืคืœื™ื
ื•ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื”ืคืœื™ื.
02:48
I mean, here's a guy without computers, without the Internet, without Excel,
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ื”ื•ื ืžื ืกื” ืœื”ืกืชื›ืœ ืขืœ ื“ืคื•ืกื™ื ืจื—ื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื™ื ื•ืžื•ื•ืช ื‘ืขื™ืจ ื’ื“ื•ืœื”,
02:52
trying to do something that is incredibly hard
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ืžื ืกื” ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื” ืงื•ืจื”.
02:55
and incredibly important.
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ื•ืžื” ืฉื”ืชืจืฉื™ื ืžื’ืœื”
02:57
He's trying to look at broad patterns in life and death in a great city,
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ื”ื•ื ืฉื™ืฉ ื›ืžื•ืช ื˜ืจื’ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืžืงืจื™ ืžื•ื•ืช ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื™ืœื“ื™ื,
ืœื ืจืง ืชื™ื ื•ืงื•ืช, ืืœื ื’ื ื™ืœื“ื™ื ื‘ื ื™ ื—ืžืฉ ื•ื‘ื ื™ 10
03:01
trying to make sense of what is going on.
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ืฉืžืชื™ื ื‘ืงืฆื‘ ืžื“ืื™ื’.
03:04
And what the chart reveals
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ืื‘ืœ ื›ืžืขื˜ ืืฃ ืื—ื“ ืœื ืžื’ื™ืข ืœ -85 ืื• 90.
03:06
is that there is a tragic amount of death among children,
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03:08
not just infants, but five-year-olds and 10-year-olds
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ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืžื—ืฆื™ืช ื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื” ืžืชื” ืขื“ ื’ื™ืœ 45.
03:11
are dying at an alarming rate.
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03:13
But almost nobody makes it to 85 or 90.
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ื›ืžื” ืื ืฉื™ื ื›ืืŸ ื”ื ืžืขืœ ื’ื™ืœ 45?
03:18
And more than half of the population is dead by the age of 45.
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ื ื›ื•ืŸ? ื•ื—ื™ืฉื‘ื• ืขืœ ื–ื”: ื—ืฆื™ ืžื›ื ืœื ื”ื™ื• ื ืžืฆืื™ื ื›ืืŸ.
03:24
How many people in this room are older than 45?
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ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ืื•ืคื˜ื™ืžื™ื•ืช.
ื–ื• ื”ืฆื•ืจื” ื”ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช.
03:29
Right? And think about that: half of you would not be here.
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
ืืชื ืœื ืžืชื™ื. ื ื›ื•ืŸ?
(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
03:33
We talk about optimism.
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03:34
That is the most fundamental form of good news there is.
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ืื– ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ื›ืืŸ
ื›ื™ ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช ืืœื” ื”ืŸ ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ื•ืช.
03:37
(Laughter)
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03:38
You are not dead. Right?
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03:40
(Laughter)
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ืœืคื ื™ 100 ืฉื ื” ื—ื™ื• ืคื—ื•ืช ืž 2 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ.
03:42
So I want to stress here
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03:45
that this good news is not uncomplicated.
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ื”ื™ื•ื ื™ืฉ ื›ืžืขื˜ ืฉืžื•ื ื” ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“.
03:50
100 years ago, there were less than two billion people on earth.
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ื•ื™ืฉื ื• ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ื‘ืœืชื™ ื ืฉืœื˜ ื”ื–ื”.
ืœื ื›ื™ ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืชื—ื™ืœื• ืœืœื“ืช ืขื•ื“ ืชื™ื ื•ืงื•ืช,
ืืœื ื›ื™ ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืคืกื™ืงื• ืœืžื•ืช ื•ื”ื“ื•ืจื•ืช ื ืขืจืžื™ื.
03:56
Today there's almost eight billion and counting.
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03:59
And we have that runaway population growth
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04:01
not because people started having more babies,
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ื›ืžื• ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ ืืงืœื™ื
ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืžื’ืžื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื•ืช ืืœื• ื’ื ื›ืŸ.
04:04
but rather because people stopped dying and the generations stacked up.
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ืื ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืฉื•ืžืจื™ื ืขืœ ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ื”ืชืžื•ืชื” ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ื™ื• ื‘ืฉื ืช 1920,
04:09
And we have problems like climate change
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ืœื ื”ื™ื™ื™ื ื• ืžืชืงืจื‘ื™ื ืœืกื“ืจ ื”ื’ื•ื“ืœ ื”ื–ื”
ืฉืœ ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ืืงืœื™ื ืฉืื ื• ืžืชืžื•ื“ื“ื™ื ืื™ืชื• ื›ืขืช
04:12
because of these underlying trends as well.
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ื›ื™ ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืœื ื”ื™ื• ืžืกืคื™ืง ืื ืฉื™ื ืขืœ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ
04:14
If we had kept mortality rates where they were in 1920,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœืคืœื•ื˜ ืžืกืคื™ืง ืคื—ืžืŸ ืœืื˜ืžื•ืกืคื™ืจื”, ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื™ืขืฉื” ื”ื‘ื“ืœ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™.
04:18
we wouldn't have anywhere near the magnitude
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04:20
of the climate crisis we're facing now
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ื‘ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืžื•ื–ืจ, ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ืืงืœื™ื
04:22
because there simply wouldn't have been enough people on the planet
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ื”ื•ื ื”ืชื•ืฆืื” ื”ื‘ืœืชื™ ืฆืคื•ื™ื” ืฉืœ ืชื™ืขื•ืฉ
04:25
to emit enough carbon into the atmosphere to make a meaningful difference.
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ื•ืืจื™ื›ื•ืช ื™ืžื™ื ืžื•ื’ื‘ืจืช.
04:29
In a weird sense, climate change
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ืื– ื›ืœ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื”ื™ื ื ื‘ืจื›ื” ืฉืงืœืœื” ื‘ืฆื™ื“ื”,
04:31
is the unintended consequence of industrialization
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ื›ืžื• ื‘ื›ืœ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื›ื” ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™.
04:35
and increased longevity.
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ืฉืœื ืจืง ืฉืขืฉื™ื ื• ืืช ื–ื”,
04:38
So all this extra life is a mixed blessing,
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04:41
like any change this momentous.
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ืืœื, ืฉื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ื›ื™ ืžืขื ื™ื™ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื ืื™ืš ืขืฉื™ื ื• ืืช ื–ื”.
04:45
But I want to stress not just that we did it,
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ื–ื” ืžื” ืฉื”ืขืกื™ืง ืื•ืชื™ ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืžื•ื—ืœื˜ืช ื‘ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช,
ื–ื• ื”ื—ืงื™ืจื” ืฉืขื‘ื“ืชื™ ืขืœื™ื”,
ื›ืฉืื ื™ ืžื ืกื” ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื”ื ื”ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœื™ื ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ื™ื
04:50
but I think the more interesting question is how we did it.
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ื›ืฉืื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื›ื” ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™.
04:53
That's what's been obsessing me over the last years,
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ืžื” ื‘ืืžืช ืžื ื™ืข ืืช ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื”ื–ื”?
04:56
that's the investigation I've been on,
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ื•ืœื“ืขืชื™ ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื•ืžืจ,
04:58
trying to figure out what are the prime movers
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ื‘ื”ืชื—ืฉื‘ ื‘ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉืงื•ืจื” ื‘ืขื•ืœื,
05:00
when we see change this momentous.
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ืขืœื™ื ื• ืœืฆื™ื™ืŸ,
05:02
What is really driving that change?
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ืฉืื—ื“ ืžืื•ืชื ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœื™ื ืจืืฉื™ื™ื, ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื–ืขื•ืง ืื•ืชื ื‘ึฐึผืจึนืืฉื ื—ื•ึผืฆื•ึนืช,
05:05
And I think we should say,
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05:07
given everything that's happening in the world,
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ื”ื•ื ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ื.
05:09
we should point out that, you know,
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ื ื›ื•ืŸ? ื”ื›ืคืœื ื• --
(ืชืฉื•ืื•ืช)
05:11
one of those prime movers, which we should shout from the rooftops,
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ื›ืŸ ื ื›ื•ืŸ?
ืชื•ื“ื”.
05:15
is vaccines.
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ื”ืžืฆืืชื™ ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ื, ืื– ืื ื™ ืžืขืจื™ืš ืืช ื–ื”.
05:17
Right? We doubled --
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(ืฆื—ื•ืง)
05:18
(Applause)
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ืœืื‘ืขื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ืฉื—ื•ืจื•ืช ืขื“ ืœืคื•ืœื™ื•, ืฉืคืขืช, ืฉื—ืคืช, ื—ืฆื‘ืช, ื•ืงื•ืจื•ื ื”.
05:20
Yes, right?
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05:22
Thank you.
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05:23
I did invent vaccines, so I appreciate that.
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ืœื• ื—ื™ื™ื ื• ื—ื•ื’ื’ื™ื ืืช ื”ื“ื‘ืจืช ื”ืื‘ืขื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจื•ืช
05:25
(Laughter)
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05:27
I mean, for smallpox to polio, influenza, TB and measles, and covid.
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ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื‘ื• ืื ื• ื—ื•ื’ื’ื™ื ืืช ื”ื ื—ื™ืชื” ืขืœ ื”ื™ืจื—,
ื”ื™ื• ืœื ื• ื”ืจื‘ื” ืคื—ื•ืช ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ื™ื•ืช ืœื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื›ืจื’ืข.
05:33
I mean, if we celebrated the eradication of smallpox
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ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ื’ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื–ื• ื˜ืขื•ืช
ืœื”ืชืžืงื“ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื‘ืœืขื“ื™ ืขืœ ืฆืขื“ืช ื”ืžื“ืข
05:36
the way we celebrate the moon landing,
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05:38
we would have a lot less vaccine hesitancy in the world right now.
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ื•ืขืœ ืกื•ื’ ื”ืื•ื‘ื™ื™ืงื˜ื™ื ื”ืžื•ื—ืฉื™ื™ื,
ื›ืžื• ื—ื™ืกื•ื ื™ื ื•ืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื” ืื• ืฆื™ืœื•ืžื™ ืจื ื˜ื’ืŸ.
05:42
But I also think it's a mistake
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05:43
to focus exclusively on the march of science
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ื•ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืœืžื” ืื ื™ ืžืชื›ื•ื•ืŸ ื‘ื–ื”,
ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉืžื•ืขื™ืœ ืœื”ืกืชื›ืœ ืขืœ ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ
05:47
and the kind of tangible objects,
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ืื™ืš ื’ื‘ืจื ื• ืขืœ ืื—ื“ ื”ืื™ื•ืžื™ื ื”ืžืคื—ื™ื“ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ
05:48
like vaccines and antibiotics or X-rays.
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05:52
And to explain what I mean by that,
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ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื” -19.
05:54
I think it's useful to look at the story
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ื—ืœื‘.
05:56
of how we conquered one of the most terrifying threats
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ื•ื‘ื›ืŸ, ืื ื• ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืขืœ ื—ืœื‘ ื›ืขืœ ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืกืžืœ ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื•ื—ื™ื•ื ื™ื•ืช,
06:00
of the 19th century.
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ืื‘ืœ ืœืžืขืฉื”, ื‘ืืžืฆืข ื”ืžืื” ื”-19,
ื—ืœื‘ ื”ื™ื” ืื™ื•ื ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืชื™ ืจืฆื™ื ื™, ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื.
06:03
Milk.
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06:04
Now, we think of milk as this kind of emblem of health and vitality,
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ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ืงื™ืจื•ืจ ืžื›ื ื™
ื•ื›ืš ื”ื™ื• ื”ืจื‘ื” ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืงืœืงื•ืœ.
06:09
but in fact, in the middle of the 19th century,
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ืื ืฉื™ื ืขืœื•ืœื™ื ื”ื™ื• ืœื—ืœื•ืช ื‘ืฉื—ืคืช ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื—ืœื‘.
06:12
milk was a serious health threat, particularly to children.
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ื”ื ืžืฆืื• ืืช ื”ืคื™ืชืจื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื” ืœืขื“ืจื™ ื‘ืงืจ ื‘ืขืจื™ื
06:14
We had no mechanical refrigeration
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ืฉืฉื ื”ื ืœื ื™ื›ืœื• ืœื”ืื›ื™ืœ ืื•ืชื ื‘ืขืฉื‘
06:16
and so there was a lot of spoilage problems.
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ืื– ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ืžืื›ื™ืœื™ื ืื•ืชื ื‘ืฉืืจื™ื•ืช ืขื™ืกื” ืžืžื–ืงืงื•ืช ื•ื•ื™ืกืงื™ --
06:18
People could get tuberculosis from milk.
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ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื‘ืขืฉื‘, ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืžื‘ืจื™ืง --
06:20
They figured out this thing for urban cattle
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ืฉื”ืคื™ืง ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ื—ืœื‘ ื‘ื’ื•ื•ืŸ ื›ื—ื•ืœ
06:23
where they couldn't feed them grass
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ืฉื”ื™ื” ืžืื•ื“ ืžืกื•ื›ืŸ, ื•ืฉื ืงืจื ื—ืœื‘ ืกื•ื•ื™ืœ.
06:24
so they would feed them slop from whiskey distilleries --
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ื‘ืฉื ืช 1850,
06:27
instead of grass, brilliant idea --
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ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืžื—ืฆื™ืช ืžื›ืœืœ ืžืงืจื™ ื”ืžื•ื•ืช ืฉื ืจืฉืžื• ื‘ื ื™ื• ื™ื•ืจืง ื”ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืฆืขื™ืจื™ื,
06:29
which produced this kind of blue-tinted milk
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06:32
that was very dangerous, called swill milk.
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ืจื‘ื™ื ืžื”ื ืžืชื• ืžื—ืœื‘ ืžื–ื•ื”ื.
06:35
In 1850,
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ื•ืื ื™ ื™ื•ื“ืข ืžื” ืืชื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื.
06:36
more than half of all the deaths recorded in New York City were young children,
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ืืชื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื, โ€œืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื›ื™ืฆื“ ืคืชืจื ื• ืืช ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื–ื•.
ืคืชืจื ื• ืื•ืชื” ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ื”ืžื“ืข.
06:40
many of them killed by contaminated milk.
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ืคืชืจื ื• ืื•ืชื” ืขื ื›ื™ืžื™ื” โ€œ.
ื ื›ื•ืŸ? ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ื”ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ื›ืœ ื›ืš ืžืคื•ืจืกื.
06:43
And look, I know what you're thinking.
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06:45
You're thinking, "I know how we solved this problem.
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ื”ื•ื ื ืžืฆื ืฉื ืžื•ื“ืคืก ืขืœ ื›ืœ ืงืจื˜ื•ืŸ ื—ืœื‘
ื‘ื›ืœ ื—ื ื•ืช ืžื›ื•ืœืช ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื”, ื ื›ื•ืŸ?
06:48
We solved it with science.
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06:49
We solved it with chemistry."
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ืคืกื˜ื•ืจ.
06:51
Right? I mean, the solution is so famous.
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ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืขืฆื, ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื”ืคืกื˜ื•ืจ ื”ื•ื ืžืงืจื” ื‘ื•ื—ืŸ ืฉืœ ื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื“ืข
06:53
It's sitting there printed on every carton of milk
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06:56
in every grocery store in the country, right?
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06:58
Pasteurization.
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ื›ื™ ืœื•ืื™ ืคืกื˜ืจ ื™ืฆื ืขื ื”ื˜ื›ื ื™ืงื” ืฉืœื• ืœืขื™ืงื•ืจ ื—ืœื‘
07:00
But actually, the story of pasteurization is a case study in the limits of science
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ื‘ืฉื ืช 1865,
ืื‘ืœ ืœืžืขืฉื” ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ื—ืœื‘ ืžืคื•ืกื˜ืจ ื›ืกื˜ื ื“ืจื˜
07:06
because Louis Pasteur came up with his technique for sterilizing milk
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ืขืœ ืžื“ืคื™ ื—ื ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžื›ื•ืœืช ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื•ืช ืขื“ 1915,
07:10
in 1865,
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50 ืฉื ื” ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ.
07:13
but we didn't actually have pasteurized milk as a standard
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07:16
on American grocery storesโ€™ shelves until 1915,
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ื•ื–ื” ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื”ืžื“ืข ื•ื”ื›ื™ืžื™ื” ื‘ืขืฆืžื ืœื ื”ืกืคื™ืงื•
ืœื—ื•ืœืœ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™.
07:21
a full 50 years later.
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ื”ื™ื” ื’ื ืฆื•ืจืš ื‘ืฉื›ื ื•ืข.
07:24
And that's because science and chemistry on its own wasn't enough
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ื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืฉื›ื ืข ืื ืฉื™ื ืœืฉืชื•ืช ื—ืœื‘ ืžืคื•ืกื˜ืจ,
ื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืฉื›ื ืข ืืช ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืช ื”ื—ืœื‘ ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ื—ืœื‘ ืžืคื•ืกื˜ืจ,
07:29
to make a meaningful change.
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07:31
You also needed persuasion.
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ื•ืœืฉื ื›ืš ื”ื™ื” ืฆื•ืจืš ื‘ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื•ื ื” ืœื’ืžืจื™.
07:34
You had to convince people to drink pasteurized milk,
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ื”ื™ื” ืฆื•ืจืš ื‘ืขื™ืชื•ื ืื™ื ื—ื•ืฉืคื™ ืฉื—ื™ืชื•ื™ื•ืช.
07:37
you had to convince the dairy industry to make pasteurized milk,
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ื‘ืžื—ื•ืงืงื™ื ืฉืชื•ืžื›ื™ื ื‘ื ื—ื™ืฉื•ืช.
07:40
and that took a whole other cast of characters.
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ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืื– ืชืช-ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœืžื” ืฉืœ ืคืขื™ืœื™ ืคืกื˜ื•ืจ.
07:43
It took muckraking journalists.
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ืื•ืœื™ ื”ื›ื™ ืคื—ื•ืช ืกื‘ื™ืจ ื”ื™ื” ื˜ื™ื™ืงื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื—ื ื•ืช ื›ืœื‘ื•
07:45
It took crusading lawmakers.
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ื‘ืฉื ื ืชืŸ ืฉื˜ืจืื•ืก,
07:48
There was a whole subculture of pasteurization activists back then.
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ืฉื ื›ื ืก ืœืื•ื‘ืกืกื™ื” ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ื”ืคืกื˜ื•ืจ
ื•ื”ื•ื ืžื™ืžืŸ ืืช ื›ืœ ืžื—ืกื ื™ ื”ื—ืœื‘ ื‘ื›ืœ ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื ื™ื• ื™ื•ืจืง
07:52
Maybe the most unlikely one was a department store magnate
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ืฉื‘ื”ื ื ืžื›ืจ ื—ืœื‘ ืžืคื•ืกื˜ืจ ื‘ืžื—ื™ืจ ืขืœื•ืช
07:55
named Nathan Straus,
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07:57
who got obsessed with the pasteurization cause
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ืœืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ื›ื ืกื” ื ืžื•ื›ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื™ืคืชื—ื• ืœื–ื” ื˜ืขื.
07:59
and he funded all these milk depots all around New York City
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ืื– ื‘ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืžืกื•ื™ื, ื”ื“ืจืš ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื–ื” ื”ื™ื
08:02
where pasteurized milk was sold at cost
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ืฉืคืกื˜ืจ ืคืชืจ ืืช ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื‘ืจืžืช ื”ื›ื™ืžื™ื”,
08:06
to low-income residents so that they would develop a taste for it.
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ืื‘ืœ ืฉื˜ืจืื•ืก ื•ื‘ื ื™ ื‘ืจื™ืชื• ืคืชืจื• ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ืจืžื” ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช.
08:09
So in a sense, the way to think about it
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08:11
is that Pasteur solved the problem on the level of chemistry,
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ื•ืฆืจื™ืš ืืช ืฉืชื™ ื”ื—ื–ื™ืชื•ืช ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ื•ืœืœ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื‘ืงื ื” ืžื™ื“ื” ื–ื”.
08:15
but Straus and his allies solved it on the level of society.
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ื•ื™ืฉ ืขื•ื“ ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืจืืฉื™ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœื™ื• ืžืกืคื™ืง,
ืžื” ืฉื ืจืื” ืงืฆืช ืœื ืกื‘ื™ืจ ื‘ื”ืงืฉืจ ืฉืœ ื—ื“ืฉื ื•ืช ืžืฉื‘ืฉืช,
08:20
And you need both fronts to effect change on that scale.
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ื•ื”ื•ื ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื‘ื™ืจื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื.
08:24
And there's another prime mover that we don't talk about enough,
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08:27
which seems a little bit unlikely in the context of disruptive innovation,
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ื•ืื ื–ื” ื ืจืื” ืœื›ื ื›ืกืชื™ืจื”, ืื ื™ ืžืฆื™ืข ืฉืชืขื™ื™ื ื• ื‘ื“ืคื™ื
08:31
and that is large bureaucratic institutions.
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ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ืงื˜ืœื•ื’ ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ืžืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ืžืื” ื” -20.
08:35
Now, if that seems contradictory to you, I suggest that you flip through the pages
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื” ื”ื ืจืง โ€œืจืฉื™ืžืช ืžื›ื•ืœืชโ€ ืฉืœ ืจืขืœื™ื ืงื˜ืœื ื™ื™ื,
08:39
of any pharmaceutical drug catalog from the early 20th century.
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ืื—ื“ ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืฉื ื™:
ืืจืกืŸ, ื›ืกืคื™ืช, ื‘ืœื“ื•ื ื”, ืฉืœื ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื”ืจื•ืื™ืŸ ื•ืงื•ืงืื™ืŸ
08:43
I mean, these things are just a laundry list of deadly poisons,
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ื”ืจื‘ื” ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ื ื™ื ืจืคื•ืื™ื™ื ืžืืžื™ื ื™ื ืฉื›ืœืœ ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช
08:48
one after another:
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08:49
arsenic, mercury, belladonna, not to mention all the heroin and cocaine.
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ื”ื™ื• ืฉืœื™ืœื™ื•ืช ื ื˜ื• ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ืช ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ืื“ื
ืขื“ ื”ื”ืžืฆืื” ืฉืœ ื”ืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื” ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”ืืจื‘ืขื™ื.
08:55
A lot of medical historians believe that all-in pharmaceutical drugs
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ื›ืš ื ืจืื• ื”ื—ื™ื™ื.
ื•ื‘ืฉื ืช 1937, ื”ื™ื” ืกื˜ืืจื˜-ืืค ื”ืคืืจืžื” ืฉืœ ื˜ื ืกื™
09:00
were a net negative in terms of human health
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09:02
until the invention of antibiotics in the 1940s.
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ืฉื™ืฆื ืขื ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืกื™ืจื•ืค ืฉื™ืขื•ืœ ื—ื“ืฉ,
09:05
That's what life was like.
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ืœืžืขืฉื”, ืชืจื•ืคื” ื ื’ื“ ื“ืœืงืช ื’ืจื•ืŸ, ืฉืžื™ื•ืขื“ืช ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื.
09:07
And in 1937, there was this Tennessee pharma startup
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ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ื™ื• ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ื‘ืฉื ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ืกื•ืœืคื”
09:11
that hit upon this idea for a new cough syrup,
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ืฉื”ื™ื• ืžืขื™ืŸ ืžื‘ืฉืจื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืื ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ื˜ื™ืงื”.
09:14
a cure for strep throat actually, targeted at children.
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ืื‘ืœ ื”ืŸ ื”ื™ื• ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืืจื•ื–ื•ืช ื‘ืคื•ืจืžื˜ ื”ื’ืœื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื’ื•ืฉื ื”ื–ื”,
09:18
At the time, there was a new drug called sulfa drugs
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ืฉืžืื•ื“ ืงืฉื” ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื ืœื‘ืœื•ืข.
ืื– ื›ื™ืžืื™ ื‘ืกื˜ืืจื˜-ืืค ื”ื–ื”
09:22
that were kind of a forerunner of antibiotics.
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ื”ื’ื” ืืช ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืžื‘ืจื™ืง ืฉืœ ื”ืžืกืช ืชืจื•ืคืช ื”ืกื•ืœืคื”
09:24
But they were generally packaged in this bulky pill format,
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ื‘ื“ื™ืืชื™ืœืŸ ื’ืœื™ืงื•ืœ
09:27
very difficult for kids to swallow.
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09:29
So a chemist at this startup
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ื•ืื– ื”ื•ืกืคืช ืงืฆืช ื˜ืขื ืคื˜ืœ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืื•ืชื• ืœื˜ืขื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื.
09:31
came up with the brilliant idea of dissolving the sulfa drug
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ื ืจืื” ื›ืžื• ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืžื‘ืจื™ืง,
09:35
in diethylene glycol
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ื—ื•ืฅ ืžื–ื” ืฉื“ื™ืืชื™ืœืŸ ื’ืœื™ืงื•ืœ ืจืขื™ืœ ืœื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื.
09:37
and then adding some raspberry flavoring to make it more palatable for the kids.
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ื–ื” ื‘ืขืฆื ื ื•ื’ื“-ืงื™ืคืื•ืŸ.
09:41
Seemed like a brilliant idea,
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ื•ื›ืš ื›ืžืขื˜ ืžื™ื“, ื›ืžื” ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ,
09:43
except that diethylene glycol is toxic to human beings.
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ื”ื™ื• ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืžืชื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช
09:47
It's basically antifreeze.
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ืžื”ืžืจืงื—ืช ื”ื ื•ืจืื” ื”ื–ื•,
ื•ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืžื˜ื•ืจืฃ ื”ื•ื ืฉื”ื•ืกืคืช ื“ื™ืืชื™ืœืŸ ื’ืœื™ืงื•ืœ ืœืชืจื•ืคื” ืฉืœื›ื
09:51
And so almost immediately, weeks after,
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ืœื ื”ื™ื•ื•ืชื” ื‘ืขื™ื”,
09:53
there were dozens of deaths around the United States
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ื‘ื”ืชื—ืฉื‘ ื‘ืชืงื ื•ืช ื”ืงื™ื™ืžื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื–ืžืŸ.
09:55
from this terrible concoction,
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09:57
and the crazy thing is that putting diethylene glycol in your medicine
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ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ืฉื”-FDA ื‘ืืžืช ื”ืชืขื ื™ื™ื ื• ื‘ื•
ื”ื™ื” ืื ืืชื ืื›ืŸ ืจืฉืžืชื
10:01
was not a problem,
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ืืช ื”ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื™ืงื•ื™ ืฉืœื›ื ืขืœ ื”ืชื•ื•ื™ืช.
10:02
given the existing regulations of the day.
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ืื– ืื ืจืฆื™ืชื ืœื›ืœื•ืœ ื—ื•ืžืจ ืื ื˜ื™ืคืจื™ื– ื‘ืกื™ืจื•ืค ื”ืฉื™ืขื•ืœ ืฉืœื›ื,
10:05
The only thing that the FDA was really interested in
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ื–ื” ื‘ืกื“ืจ, ื›ืœ ืขื•ื“ ืจืฉืžืชื ืืช ื”ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืชื•ื•ื™ืช.
10:08
was whether you were actually listing
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10:10
the ingredients of your potion on the label.
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ื›ืš ื ืจืื• ืื– ื”ื—ื™ื™ื.
ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื”ื˜ืจื’ื“ื™ื” ื”ื–ื•, ื”ื—ื•ืงื™ื ืฉื•ื ื•.
10:13
So if you wanted to put antifreeze in your cough syrup,
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ื•ื‘ืคืขื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื”, ื”-FDA ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื•
10:16
go ahead, as long as you list ingredients on the label.
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ืืช ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื”ืคืืจืžื” ืœื”ื•ื›ื™ื— ืฉื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ืฉืœื”ืŸ ืื™ื ืŸ ืžื–ื™ืงื•ืช ืœืฆืจื›ื ื™ื,
10:18
That's what life was like.
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10:20
But because of this tragedy, laws were changed.
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ืžื” ืฉื ืจืื” ื“ื™ ื‘ืจื•ืจ, ืื‘ืœ ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ื–ื”.
10:23
And for the first time, the FDA mandated
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ืื– ืžื” ืฉื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ื‘ืื•ืชื• ืฉืœื‘ ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืจืง ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ืคืœื ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช.
10:25
the pharma companies show that their drugs were not harmful to consumers,
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10:29
which seems kind of obvious, but somebody had to figure that out.
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ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื™ื.
10:33
And so what we needed at that point was not just kind of new miracle drugs.
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ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉื™ื ืจืคื•ืื™ื™ื,
ื›ืžื• ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ืชืœืช ืฉืœื‘ื™ื™ื
ื•ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื ืืงืจืื™ื™ื ืžื‘ื•ืงืจื™ื,
10:39
We needed new institutions.
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ื•ื’ื•ืคื™ื ืจื’ื•ืœื˜ื•ืจื™ื™ื, ื›ืžื• ื”-FDA,
10:41
We needed new medi-innovations,
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ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืจื™ื“ ืืช ื”ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื”ืžื–ื•ื™ืคื•ืช ืžื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืืžื™ืชื™.
10:44
like three phase trials
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10:46
and randomized controlled experiments,
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ื•ืกื•ื’ ื›ื–ื” ืฉืœ ื—ื“ืฉื ื•ืช ืžื•ืกื“ื™ืช ื”ื•ืœืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ ื—ืฉื•ื‘
10:48
and regulatory bodies, like the FDA,
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10:51
to separate out the fake cures from the real thing.
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ื‘ืขืฉื•ืจื™ื ื”ื‘ืื™ื,
10:55
And that kind of institutional innovation is going to be increasingly important
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ื›ื™ ื‘ื›ืœ ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื›ืจื’ืข,
ื™ืฉื ื ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ืฉืžืžื•ืžื ื™ื ื”ื™ื˜ื‘ ื•ืžืขื‘ื“ื•ืช ืจืฆื™ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืขื•ื‘ื“ื•ืช
ืขืœ ื”ื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ื•ืช ืขื ื‘ืขื™ื™ืช ื”ื”ื–ื“ืงื ื•ืช ืขืฆืžื”.
11:01
in the decades to come,
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11:03
because all around the world right now,
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ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ื›ืจื’ืข ื”ื’ื‘ื•ืœ ื”ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื™ ื”ืื“ื
11:05
there are well-funded scientists and serious labs that are working
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ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ืฉื”ื•ื ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช 110 ื•-115.
11:08
on tackling the problem of aging itself.
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ืงืฉื” ืžืื•ื“ ืœื—ื™ื•ืช ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœื–ื”.
ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ืžื—ืงืจ ืจืฆื™ื ื™ ื‘ืชื—ื•ื
11:12
I mean, currently the outer boundary of human life
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ืฉืžืฆื‘ื™ืข ืขืœ ื›ืš ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื’ื‘ื•ืœ ื”ื–ื”
11:15
is somewhere around 110 and 115.
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ื•ืœื—ื™ื•ืช ืขื•ื“ ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื, ื•ืื•ืœื™ ืืคื™ืœื• ืœืœื ื”ื’ื‘ืœืช ื–ืžืŸ.
11:17
It's very hard to live past that.
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ืื ื™ ืœื ืื•ืžืจ ืฉื–ื” ื™ืงืจื”, ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ืขืœ ื”ืฉื•ืœื—ืŸ.
11:20
But there is serious research out there
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11:22
that suggests that we can just blow past that boundary
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ื•ืื ื ืขืฉื” ืืช ื–ื”,
11:24
and live for decades longer, maybe even indefinitely.
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ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื™ืŸ ืฉืœื ื•,
11:28
I'm not saying this is going to happen, but it is on the table.
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ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœื”, ื”ื•ื ื™ื’ื‘ื™ืจ ื‘ืื™ื ื˜ื ืกื™ื‘ื™ื•ืช --
11:32
And the thing about it is, if we did do that,
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ืืช ืื™ ื”ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื‘ืขื•ืœื
11:34
it would be the most momentous change in the history of our species, right?
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ื›ื™ ืจืง ืื ืฉื™ื ืขืฉื™ืจื™ื ื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœื”ืจืฉื•ืช ืœืขืฆืžื ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœื™ื ืืœื” ื‘ื”ืชื—ืœื”.
11:38
Initially, it would intensely --
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ื–ื” ื™ื—ืžื™ืจ ืžืื•ื“ ืืช ื‘ืขื™ื™ืช ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ื“ื•ื”ืจ ืฉืœื ื•
11:40
increase the health inequalities in the world
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ื•ื–ื” ื™ืฉื ื” ืžื”ื•ืชื™ืช ืืช ื”ื”ื’ื“ืจื” ืฉืœ ืงืฉืช ื—ื™ื™ ื”ืื“ื.
11:44
because people could -- only rich people could afford these treatments originally.
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11:48
It would greatly exacerbate our runaway population growth problem
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ื•ื›ืฉืฉื•ืืœื™ื ืื ืฉื™ื, ืื ื”ื ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ืชืขืกืง ืขื ืืœืžื•ืชื™ื•ืช,
11:51
and it would fundamentally alter the definition of the arc of a human life.
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ืจื•ื‘ื ืื•ืžืจื™ื ืฉืœื.
ืื‘ืœ ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื™ื ืฉืื™ืŸ ืœื ื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืงื•ืœืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™
11:56
And when you ask people, do you think we should mess around with immortality,
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ื’ื•ืฃ ืžืงื‘ืœ ื”ื—ืœื˜ื•ืช ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืขื–ื•ืจ ืœื ื• ืœื”ื™ืื‘ืง ื‘ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื›ื” ืขืฆื•ืžื™ื.
12:00
ordinary people, most of them say no.
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12:03
But the problem is we don't have collectively
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ืื ื—ื ื• ื›ืžื• ื”-FDA ื‘-1930,
12:06
a decision-making body that can help us wrestle with changes this immense.
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ื›ืžื•, ืงื“ื™ืžื”, ืฆืื• ื•ื™ืฆืจื• ืืช ื’ืœื•ืœืช ื”ืืœืžื•ื•ืช ืฉืœื›ื.
ืจืง ื•ื•ื“ืื• ืฉื”ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ืจืฉื•ืžื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืชื•ื•ื™ืช.
ื–ื” ื”ืžืงื•ื ืฉื‘ื• ืื ื—ื ื• ื ืžืฆืื™ื.
12:13
We're like the FDA back in 1930,
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ืื– ืกื•ื’ื™ ื”ื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉื™ื ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืจืžืช ื”ืคื™ืงื•ื—
12:15
like, go ahead and make your immortality pill.
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12:17
Just make sure the ingredients are right on the label.
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ื•ืงื‘ืœืช ื”ื—ืœื˜ื•ืช,
12:20
That's where we are.
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ื•ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ื”ื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉื™ื ื”ืืœื” ืื ื ืขื‘ื•ื“ ืขืœ ื–ื”.
12:21
So the kinds of innovations we need are going to be on the level of oversight
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ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื ื›ื™ ื”ืคืจื–ื” ืจื’ื•ืœื˜ื•ืจื™ืช ื”ื™ื ื‘ืขื™ื”.
12:27
and decision making,
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ืื– ื ืฆื˜ืจืš ืœื”ืงื™ื ื’ื•ืคื™ ืงื‘ืœืช ื”ื—ืœื˜ื•ืช
12:29
and I think we can make these innovations if we if we work at it.
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ืฉืจื’ื™ืฉื™ื ื”ืŸ ืœืกื›ื ื•ืช ื•ื”ืŸ ืœืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ื”ื‘ืœืชื™ ืžื›ื•ื•ื ื•ืช,
12:32
Now, we all realize that regulatory overreach is a problem.
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ืื‘ืœ ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ื–ื” ื‘ืืžืช ืคืชื•ื—ื™ื ืœืืคืฉืจื•ื™ื•ืช.
12:37
So we're going to have to design decision-making bodies
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ืื‘ืœ ืœื“ืขืชื™, ืขืœื™ื ื• ืœื”ืชืžืงื“ ืคื—ื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืืจื›ืช ื—ื™ื™ื ืœื—ื™ื™ื ืœืœื ื”ื’ื‘ืœืช ื–ืžืŸ
12:40
that are both sensitive to the dangers and the unintended consequences,
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12:44
but also genuinely open to the possibilities.
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ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขืœ ืฆืžืฆื•ื ื”ืคืขืจื™ื ืฉื ืฉืืจื™ื ื‘ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช
12:48
But to my mind, we should be focusing less on extending life indefinitely
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ื›ืืŸ ื•ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื.
ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ืจืง ืชืจืื• ืžื” ืขื‘ืจื ื• ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื ื• ื‘ืฉื ื” ื•ื—ืฆื™ ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช.
12:53
and more on reducing the gaps that remain in health outcomes
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ื‘ืžืžื•ืฆืข, ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื ืœื‘ื ื™ื ืื™ื‘ื“ื• ืฉื ื” ืื—ืช ืžื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืฆืคื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืฉื ืช 2020,
12:57
here and around the world.
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12:59
I mean, just look at what we've lived through in the past year and a half.
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ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื”ื•ื“ื•ืช ืœืงื•ืจื•ื ื”.
ืืคืจื•-ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื ืื™ื‘ื“ื• ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืฉื ื™ื.
13:03
On average, white Americans lost one year of expected life in 2020,
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ื•ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ืชืžืงื“ ืขืœ ืฆืžืฆื•ื ื”ืคืขืจ
ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื” ืฉืื ื• ืžื›ื ื™ื ืชื•ื—ืœืช ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ืœืชื•ื—ืœืช ื—ื™ื™ื.
13:08
thanks largely to covid.
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13:09
African Americans lost three years.
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ืžืฉืš ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืื ื• ืžื‘ืœื™ื
ืฉื”ื•ื ื‘ื™ืกื•ื“ื• ื‘ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื•ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืžืœืื”.
13:13
And we should be focusing on reducing the gap
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ืื ื™ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืฉื›ื•ืœื ื• ืžืกื›ื™ืžื™ื ืฉืืœื• ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช
13:15
between what we call health span and lifespan.
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ืฉื›ื“ืื™ ืœืคืชื•ืจ,
13:17
The amount of time that we spend
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ื•ื›ืจื’ืข ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ืœืจืฉื•ืชื ื• ื”ื›ืœื™ื ืœืคืชื•ืจ ืื•ืชื.
13:19
that is fundamentally healthy and full capacity.
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ืื ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื‘ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ืื“ื
13:23
I think we all agree that these are problems
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13:25
that are worth solving
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ื”ืืจื™ื›ื” ืืช ืชื•ื—ืœืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืžืžื•ืฆืขืช,
13:26
and we have the tools at our disposal right now to solve them.
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ื”ืฉื ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืขืœ ืกื’ื™ืจืช ื”ืคืขืจื™ื.
13:30
If the first great revolution in human health
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ืชื•ื“ื” ืจื‘ื” ืœื›ื.
13:34
was extending the overall average human life,
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(ืชืฉื•ืื•ืช)
13:37
the second should be about closing the gaps.
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13:41
Thank you very much.
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13:43
(Applause)
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ืขืœ ืืชืจ ื–ื”

ืืชืจ ื–ื” ื™ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื›ื ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ YouTube ื”ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ืœื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืจื™ื ืžื”ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœื—ืฅ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ืฃ ื•ื™ื“ืื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื. ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื’ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืกื ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืคืขืœืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื“ืื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช, ืื ื ืฆื•ืจ ืื™ืชื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ื•ืคืก ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ื–ื”.

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