How to Harness the Ancient Partnership between Forests and Fungi | Colin Averill | TED

譯者: Winston Chung 審譯者: Shelley Tsang 曾雯海

So we know forests play an essential role in regulating the Earth's climate.

我們知道森林扮演一個基本的角色 調節地球的氣候。

However, most of what we know about those forests

然而，我們對這些森林的知識

is actually based on things we can measure aboveground.

主要基於地表上可衡量的東西。

So historically, ecologists like myself would come to this place,

歷史上，像我這樣的生態學家 會來到這個地方，

and we’d count the number of tree stems we’d find.

我們數樹幹的數目。

We’d identify which species they are,

我們認定它們的種類，

and today we’d probably remotely sense features of this forest canopy from space.

現今我們可能會從太空遠距離 偵測到這森林華蓋的特徵。

And all of this absolutely makes sense.

這些都是完全有道理的。

Aboveground is where photosynthesis happens.

地表之上是光合作用發生的地方。

Photosynthesis is how carbon and energy enter forests.

光合作用是碳和能源 如何進入森林的。

Photosynthesis is how trees can remove carbon dioxide

光合作用是樹木如何能 從大氣中移除二氧化碳。

from the atmosphere.

However, we also know most trees are limited in some way,

然而，我們也知道，樹木往往有限於

by soil resources like water or nutrients.

土壤的資源像水和養分。

And to access those resources, trees have to build roots.

要得到這些資源， 樹木需要長根。

And trees build an incredible amount of roots.

樹木長了極多的根。

So in some forests, there can be as much or more biomass belowground,

有些森林地表下根系的生物量 可能等於或大於

in root structures,

as aboveground, in stems and leaves.

地表上的樹幹和枝葉。

Decades of research have now made very clear

幾十年來的研究很明白地顯示

that belowground ecology --

地表下的生態學

so what’s going on in the soil -- is really essential to understanding

（土壤裡發生的事） 是了解森林系統如何作用的基礎。

how these forest systems work.

However, if you follow these root systems all the way out to their terminal ends,

然而，如果你循著根系到最末端，

the finest tips in the root system,

最細的根的末梢，

and you look closely -- I mean super closely,

非常非常仔細地看，

like, you’re going to need a microscope closely --

仔細到需要用顯微鏡，

you discover a place where the tree stops being a plant,

你會發現有個地方 樹不再是樹，

and starts becoming a fungus.

而開始變成菌類。

So most trees on Earth form a partnership,

地球上大多數的樹木會和菌根 形成一種合作關係，

or what scientists call symbiosis,

科學家稱為共生。

with mycorrhizal fungi.

So this, in my opinion,

這張圖我認為是所有捕捉到 這些有機體最卓越的影片之一。

is one of the most remarkable images ever captured of these organisms.

So in the background, at the top,

在背景的上方，

you can see this dense network of fungal hyphae.

你可以看到菌類分枝的稠密網路。

These are essentially like roots, but for fungi, instead of plants.

它們基本上像是樹根， 但不是樹的根，而是菌類的根。

And in the foreground,

在前景，

you can see these incredible, multinucleated fungal spores,

你可以看到這些難以置信， 多細胞核的菌類孢子，

which look totally unreal, but absolutely are.

看起來不太真實，確是千真萬確。

These are the reproductive structures of the fungus.

它們是菌類的生殖系統。

These have the potential to become entirely new fungal networks.

它們有潛力成為全新的菌類網路。

Mycorrhizal fungi are essential

所有植物基本上都靠菌根來 吸收有限的土壤資源。

to how basically all plants access limiting soil resources.

There's actually evidence

事實上證據顯示

that when plants first made the evolutionary transition

當植物開始演化 從活在水裡到活在陸地上，

from living in water to living on land,

they evolved this symbiosis before they even evolved roots.

它們演化出這種共生 甚至在演化出根之前。

And so this partnership between forests and their fungi is ancient,

所以森林和菌類的合作關係是古老的，

and it stretches back hundreds of millions of years.

可以回溯到幾億年前。

However, these roots don't have to be just fungi.

然而，這些根不一定是菌類，

They can also be, for instance, bacteria.

舉例說，它們也可以是細菌。

So these circular structures in this root network

在這根的網路裡這些圓形的結構

are called root nodules.

叫做根瘤。

They house symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

那裡共生著固定氮氣的細菌。

And what these bacteria do

這些細菌把大氣中的氮氣

is actually convert nitrogen gas in the atmosphere

into plant-usable forms,

轉變成植物可用的形式，

and in turn, they nurture plant growth.

因而滋養了植物的生長。

And the complexity of soil biology just keeps going.

土壤生物的複雜性不止於此。

So these root symbionts are embedded in an even more complex network

這些和根共生的生物存在於 一個更複雜的網路

of free-living bacterial and fungal decomposers,

有自己生存的細菌， 分解腐化的菌類，

and archaea and protists,

古菌，原生生物，

microscopic soil animals, viruses ...

微小土壤動物，病毒

The biodiversity of soil communities is astonishing.

土壤社區的生物多樣性讓人震驚。

We now know a handful of soil

我們現在明白一巴掌的土壤

can easily contain over 1,000 coexisting microbial species.

可輕易擁有超過1000種 共同生存的微生物。

And so all of this, this is the soil microbiome.

所有這些是土壤的微生物群。

This is the forest microbiome, this is the ecosystem microbiome.

這是森林的微生物群， 這是生態系統的微生物群。

So breakthroughs in DNA sequencing technology

DNA序列科技的突破

have finally turned the lights on belowground.

終於把注意力放在地表下。

DNA has allowed us to see these microbial communities

DNA讓我們能觀察這些微生物社區 細微到前所未有的程度，

in unprecedented detail,

and, only recently, at unprecedented scales.

而且近來，有前所未有的規模。

Yet despite these breakthroughs,

然而，即使有這些突破，

I'd argue we still don't know the answers to seemingly simple questions, like this:

我認為我們仍然無法回答 一些看來簡單的問題，像是

"What does a healthy forest microbiome look like?"

健康森林的微生物群是什麼樣子？

We're far closer to answering a question like this for people

一個像這樣的問題 若是關於人，我們比較接近能回答

than we are for plants.

若是關於植物，還差很遠。

The Human Microbiome Project has really led in this area.

人類微生物群計畫 在這個領域明顯地領先。

So the human body is a microbial ecosystem.

人類生體有一個微生物群生態。

Each of us houses an incredibly biodiverse community of bacteria in our gut,

我們每個人的腸道都生存了 一個種類繁多的細菌社區，

and that has a profound impact on our health.

這對我們的健康有極大的影響。

This was discovered by medical microbiologists

這是醫學微生物家的發現

using DNA sequencing to characterize which bacteria

經由DNA序列認定哪些細菌住在 上百人的體內。

live in hundreds of people's bodies.

And importantly, also noting health features of those same people.

而且，很重要的，也記載了 這些人的健康特徵。

So, are they sick? And if so, with what?

像是，他們生病嗎？ 如果是，生什麼病？

What's their blood pressure, their digestive health,

他們的血壓，消化系統健康， 心理健康如何？

their mental health?

And by combining all of that information,

匯集所有這些訊息，

those microbiologists could begin to identify

這些微生物學家可以開始判別

combinations of bacteria linked to health and disease.

關聯到健康和疾病的細菌組合。

And these analyses became a road map

這個分析就變成一個藍圖

for the development of human microbiome transplant therapies,

開發出人類微生物移植醫療，

which is essentially ecosystem restoration,

基本上就是人體腸道 微生物群的生態恢復。

but for your gut microbiome.

And these therapies are now on the road to market

這些醫療目前即將步入市場

to treat some of these diseases today.

用來治療當今的一些疾病。

And so drawing from this work, my team asked,

應用這個研究，我的團隊問：

"What would it look like

「如果把人類微生物群計畫的方法

to take the Human Microbiome Project approach,

but apply it to the forest?”

運用在森林上會是什麼樣子」？

What could we discover about the forest carbon cycle?

我們可能發現森林碳循環的什麼事？

Could we identify places

我們可以找到哪些地方

where we could actually do belowground microbial restoration,

我們可以去做地底下的微生物群恢復，

and, in the process, combat climate change?

而同時能對抗氣候變遷？

Over the past three years,

在過去3年，

we’ve been working with forest scientists across Europe

我們和歐洲各處許多森林科學家

to do exactly that.

一起做正是這件事。

In each of these locations,

在每一個研究地點，

scientists have been documenting forest health for decades.

科學家們已經記載 森林健康狀況有幾十年。

And so, we asked our forest research partners

我們要求我們的森林研究夥伴

to go out to each of these forests

到每個森林做土壤取樣，

and collect a small sample of soil,

which they then shipped back to our lab in Zurich

寄回到我們在蘇黎世的實驗室

so we could extract and sequence DNA,

讓我們能萃取並做DNA序列，

which allowed us to understand which microorganisms,

而了解哪些微生物，

and particularly fungi,

尤其是菌類，住在每個森林裡。

live in each of these forests.

And then finally, we used statistics and machine learning

最後，我們運用統計和電腦學習

to relate which microorganisms live in a forest

關聯森林裡微生物群和

to a really important forest health metric:

一個森林健康的重要指數：

tree growth rate

樹木生長率和地表上碳捕捉率。

and carbon-capture rate aboveground.

Now, once we controlled for the environmental drivers of tree growth --

當我們控制影響樹木生長 的環境變數，

so how warm and wet each of these places is,

像這些地方的溫度和濕度，

as well as other variables we know control background site fertility --

還有影響當地肥沃度的其他變數，

we discovered that particularly which fungi colonize

我們發現哪些菌類住在這些樹木的根部

the roots of these trees

is linked to threefold variation in how fast these trees grow,

會造成三倍的差別這些樹木的生長率

how fast they remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

和它們從大氣排除二氧化碳的速度。

So put another way,

換句話說，

these correlations imply that you could have two pine forests,

這個關聯意味著 如果你有兩個鄰近的松樹森林，

sitting side by side,

experiencing the same climate, growing in the same soils.

它們的氣候相同，長在同樣的土壤，

But if one of them was colonized

但是其中一個森林有 對的菌類社區住在它的根部，

by the right community of fungi on its roots,

it could be growing up to three times as fast as that adjacent forest.

它可能比另一個鄰近的森林長快三倍。

And furthermore, these patterns were not driven

而且，這種規律性不是由於

by the presence of particularly high-performing species or strains,

哪種特別高超的菌類或菌種，

but instead, they were driven by biodiverse and completely different

而是由於微生物的多樣性和 完全不同的菌類社區。

communities of fungi.

And so these fungal signatures are super exciting to us

這些菌類的特徵使我們感到格外興奮

because they imply an opportunity to manage,

因為它們意味著有個機會去經營

and in many cases, actually rewild the forest fungal microbiome.

森林微生物群，而且在很多案例， 使它們重新變回原野的狀況。

So, for example, can we reintroduce fungal biodiversity

例如，我們能把菌類生物多樣性

into a managed timber forestry landscape?

重新注入一個人造森林的地貌？

And in the process, can we make those trees grow faster?

在這過程，我們能同時 使這些樹木長得更快嗎？

Can we make them capture more carbon in their tree stems and in their soils?

我們能使它們的在枝幹上和在土壤裡 捕捉更多碳嗎？

Can we rewild the soil and combat climate change?

我們能使土壤回到原野狀況 來對抗氣候變遷嗎？

And these aren't just rhetorical questions --

這些不是嘲諷的問話，

we've actually started doing this.

我們確實開始做這些事。

So this is one of our field trials in Wales, in the United Kingdom.

這是我們在大英國協威爾士的 一個試驗場。

It’s run in collaboration with the charity there

由我們和慈善機構碳社區 共同經營。

called the Carbon Community.

It’s 28 acres, or 11 hectares,

這地28英畝，或11公頃，

and it's set up as a block-randomized controlled trial.

設立為區塊隨機控制的試驗。

This is analogous to how you would run a drug trial,

這就像是藥物試驗的方法，

but in this case, it's for trees instead of people.

但是這裡試驗的是樹木，不是人。

And here, we do a pretty straightforward experiment.

我們做很直接了當的試驗。

We either plant trees, business as usual --

我們有的種樹，和平常一樣，

which is just direct planting of seedlings into the ground --

直接把樹苗種在地上，

or we plant trees, and at the moment of planting,

有的種樹時加了一把土壤。

we add a small handful of soil.

But it's not just any soil.

但不是普通的土壤。

It's soil sourced from a forest

這土壤是從一個森林

our analyses have identified as harboring potentially high-performing fungi.

我們的分析顯示擁有 可能是高效能的菌類。

So since we reintroduced microbial biodiversity

自從我們把微生物群的多樣性

into some of these sites,

重新注入這些場地，

we've observed that where we actually did that,

我們觀察到我們這樣做的地方，

we've been able to accelerate tree growth and carbon capture in tree stems

我們能夠加速樹木生長和 枝幹上捕捉碳的速度

by 30 to 70 percent, depending on the tree species.

30%到70%，視樹種而定。

Or put another way --

換句話說，

where we manipulated and rewilded the invisible microbiology of this place,

在我們操控看不到的微生物群 並恢復原野的地方，

we’ve begun to change how that entire place works.

我們就開始改變了 那整個地方的行為。

Now it's important to emphasize

我們必須強調

that we're really excited about these findings,

雖然我們對這些發現十分興奮，

but we also understand they're still early.

我們知道這只是研究初期。

We want to see many more large-scale field trials

我們想要看到更多大規模的試驗

and many more locations with many more years of data.

在更多的地方得到更多年的數據。

However, beyond just these carbon and climate outcomes,

然而，除了在碳和氣候上的果效之外，

I think the most exciting thing here

我想這裡最令人興奮的是

is that we can actually do this with wild and native and biodiverse

我們可以用本土野生而有 生物多樣性的微生物來做這件事。

combinations of microorganisms.

And while we pointed this approach at forestry,

雖然我們主要把這種作法 應用在森林，

in principle, this kind of science has the potential to generalize

理論上，這種科學可能可以推廣到

to all of our managed landscapes.

所有我們經營的土地。

We can begin asking questions like,

我們可以開始問問題，像是

"What does a healthy agricultural microbiome look like?"

「健康農業用地的微生物群 是什麼樣子」？

Thinking across both food and forest agriculture.

同樣的思維用於作物農業和森林農業。

And there's reason to think a biodiversity-first approach

我們有理由相信 這種首先注意到生物多樣性的方法

may be particularly powerful here.

可能是特別有威力的。

And that’s because the history of agriculture

那是因為農業在歷史上

has been an exercise in reductionism.

都一直奉行縮減主義。

We've identified high-performing plant species,

我們辨認出一些高效率的 物種和同類植物，

and then strains,

and then we’ve selectively bred them,

我們選擇性地培育它們，

and now we genetically modify them.

然後我們基因改良它們。

And finally, we plant those organisms out in vast monocultures.

最後，我們種植這些物種 一種一種大量單獨種植。

So a single plant species as far as you can see.

放眼看去，能看到的都是同一種。

And to be clear,

坦白說，

this has produced very productive agroecosystems.

這樣做製造出高產能的農業系統。

But it's also produced ecosystems

但是，我們也開始了解 這樣製造出非常脆弱的生態系統。

we’re coming to understand are remarkably fragile.

Systems increasingly sensitive to extreme climate events,

系統愈來愈對極端氣候事件 和新奇的病原體敏感。

novel pathogens.

Systems incredibly reliant on chemical inputs,

系統極端依賴化學物質注入，

we're coming to understand have really serious externalities.

我們開始了解到它們有嚴重外在的問題。

So we now have the data, computational tools

我們現在有數據，計算工具

and the ecological theory to start going the other way,

和生態學理論 可以開始走另一個方向，

to lean into biodiversity and complexity.

傾向生物多樣性和複雜性。

And once we do, the question really becomes,

當我們這樣做，問題就變成

by rewilding our soils,

靠著使土壤回歸原野

can we make our managed food and forest landscapes

我們能讓我們經營的 作物和森林土地成為

reservoirs of belowground biodiversity?

地表下生物多樣性的儲備庫嗎？

And in the process,

在這過程，

can we enhance yields and carbon capture

我們能增進產量和碳捕捉

and all the other services we ask of these ecosystems?

和其他我們期望這些生態提供的服務嗎？

I think there's a lot of reason to be incredibly hopeful here.

我想我們很有理由可以非常樂觀。

And I think we also shouldn't be so surprised

而且我認為我們不必太驚訝

that these microscopic organisms have the potential

這些微生物有潛力

for such enormous, ecosystem-scale effects.

造成如此巨大，生態規模的影響。

And that’s because we’ve known now, really for a long time,

那是因為我們現在已經知道， 事實上知道很久了，

that forests are fungi.

森林就是許多菌類。

And they’re incredibly biodiverse communities of bacteria and archaea

而且它們是非常生物多樣化的社區 包括細菌，古菌，

and protists and microscopic soil animals and viruses.

原生生物，土壤微生動物和病毒。

Soil is the literal foundation of terrestrial ecosystems,

土壤的確是陸地生態系統的基礎，

and the microbial life that inhabits soil

而居住在土壤的微生物

represents some of the most complex and biodiverse

代表著地球上 最複雜最多樣性的生物社區。

communities of life on Earth.

For the first time,

這是第一次

DNA sequencing is turning the lights on belowground.

DNA序列照亮了地表下。

It’s allowing us to see these organisms in unprecedented detail

讓我們以前所未有的細微和規模 來觀察這些微生物。

and at unprecedented scales.

Imagine studying plant biology,

試想如果你攻讀生物學，

but you never really knew if you're looking at a sequoia tree

但是你從來都不確定你看到的 是紅衫樹還是水蘚。

or a sphagnum moss.

And then, all of a sudden, you did.

然後，忽然間，你知道了。

That's what's happening right now in global environmental microbiology.

這就是目前發生在 全球環境微生物學上的事。

And so we should expect this revolution

我們期望這革命性的改變

in our understanding of these microscopic organisms,

關於我們對微生物（尤其是菌類） 的了解，

and particularly fungi,

to transform how we understand and how we manage our ecosystems

會徹底轉變我們如何了解 並如何經營我們的生態系統。

in a foundational way.

Thank you.

謝謝。

(Cheers and applause)

（歡呼和鼓掌）