The living tech we need to support human life on other planets | Lynn Rothschild

Translator: Joseph Geni Reviewer: Joanna Pietrulewicz

翻译人员: Gentle Yang 校对人员: Bruce Wang

数千年来， 可能其实是数百万年来，

我们的祖先仰望星空， 想知道那里有什么，

For thousands of years, well, really probably millions of years,

他们也好奇，

这颗星球上的我们 在宇宙中是孤独的吗？

our ancestors have looked up at the sky and wondered what's up there,

我很幸运能被雇来提出这些问题，

and they've also started to wonder,

hmm, could we be alone in this planet?

这对你来说可能算是坏消息，

因为你的纳税会作为 我去尝试解答这些问题的薪酬。

Now, I'm fortunate that I get to get paid to actually ask some of those questions,

但是到了大约10年前，

我被告知， 被询问，

and sort of bad news for you,

能否开始研究帮助人类飞离地球的技术，

your tax dollars are paying me to try to answer some of those questions.

But then, about 10 years ago,

这就是我今天演讲的主题。

I was told, I mean asked,

作为本地人，

if I would start to look at the technology to help get us off planet,

这是在波士顿的日常生活的样子，

and so that's what I'm going to talk to you about today.

而一旦离开地球，则一切大不相同。

So playing to the local crowd,

this is what it looks like in your day-to-day life in Boston,

这是我们在 WGBH 电台的上空盘旋。

but as you start to go off planet, things look very, very different.

这是一张非常著名的从月球看地球升起的照片，

So there we are, hovering above the WGBH studios.

可以看得到地球渐行渐远。

而我比较喜欢这张

And here's a very famous picture of the Earthrise from the Moon,

从火星表面看地球的照片。

and you can see the Earth starting to recede.

有人可以找得到地球吗？

让我来帮忙提示下。

And then what I love is this picture

that was taken from the surface of Mars looking back at the Earth.

（笑声）

没错。

Can anyone find the Earth?

这里想说的关键一点是， 当人们启程去火星的时候，

I'm going to help you out a little.

他们无法继续打电话，

(Laughter)

也无法像在太空站那样被细致入微地管理。

Yeah.

The point of showing this is that when people start to go to Mars,

他们必须靠自己。

所以即使他们到了那里，

they're not going to be able to keep calling in

也会需要必需的各种各样的东西，

and be micromanaged the way people on a space station are.

就像丢球上的人需要各种东西一样，

They're going to have to be independent.

比如交通，生命支持、食物、衣服等等。

So even though they're up there,

there are going to be all sorts of things that they're going to need,

而和地球不一样的是，他们还需要氧气，

just like people on Earth need things like, oh, transportation,

还得面对这里三分之一的重力，

life support, food, clothing and so on.

以及担心栖息地、能源、高温、

But unlike on Earth, they are also going to need oxygen.

以及光线与射线防护；

They're going to have to deal with about a third of the gravity that we have here.

而很多东西在地球上我们完全无需担心，

They're going to have to worry about habitats, power, heat, light

因为我们有美丽的大气层和磁层。

and radiation protection,

这导致的问题是，我们有了很多的限制，

something that we don't actually worry about nearly as much on the Earth,

而其中对我们来说最大的一个限制就是载重，

because we have this beautiful atmosphere and magnetosphere.

多年来我使用的数字是，

The problem with that is that we also have a lot of constraints.

将一罐可乐推入近地轨道约需要1万美元。

So the biggest one for us is upmass,

问题是，你花了1万美元以后，

and the number that I've used for years

is it costs about 10,000 dollars to launch a can of Coke into low Earth orbit.

依然处于近地轨道，

甚至还没有到月球、火星或其他任何地方。

The problem is, there you are with 10,000 dollars later,

因此得尝试搞清楚

and you're still in low Earth orbit.

如何才能尽可能地降低上太空的质量。

You're not even at the Moon or Mars or anything else.

So you're going to have to try to figure out

在质量及其成本问题之外，

how to keep the mass as low as possible so you don't have to launch it.

还有存储、

灵活度和可靠性方面的问题。

But on top of that cost issue with the mass,

你不能等到了那儿才说， “啊哦，我忘记带了”，

you also have problems of storage

因为亚马逊目前还无法送货到火星。

and flexibility and reliability.

You can't just get there and say, "Oops, I forgot to bring,"

因此最好做好各种准备。

那么解决方案是什么呢？

because Amazon.com just does not deliver to Mars.

在接下来的演讲中， 我给各位建议的

So you better be prepared.

解决方案实际上就是生命，

So what is the solution for this?

当你把生命视作科技时，

And I'm going to propose to you for the rest of this talk

就会发现：耶，

果然正是我们所需要的。

that the solution actually is life,

这株植物，就像这里的每个人、

and when you start to look at life as a technology,

你们的狗、猫

you realize, ah, that's it,

以及植物等等一样，

that's exactly what we needed.

都是源自于一个单细胞。

This plant here, like every person here

设想一下，一开始你的质量很小，

and every one of your dogs and cats

and plants and so on,

然后逐步成长为一个庞然大物。

all started as a single cell.

So imagine, you're starting as a very low upmass object

显然，英雄查理斯·达尔文，

提醒着我们，在生物学中没有设计师这回事儿，

and then growing into something a good deal bigger.

但是如果我们现在拥有

Now, my hero Charles Darwin,

of course, reminds us that there's no such thing as a designer in biology,

设计生物的技术，

甚至可能设计全新的生命,

but what if we now have the technology

来为我们做过去无法想象的事情呢？

to design biology,

maybe even design, oh, whole new life-forms

几年前，我被任命来推进这个项目，

that can do things for us that we couldn't have imagined otherwise?

做的过程中，

我被安排到美国宇航局的一个小组面前，

So years ago, I was asked to start to sell this program,

如你所想，

and while I was doing that,

一群西装革履、白衬衫以及防笔渍保护套的人，

I was put in front of a panel at NASA,

我狂野地推销说：

as you might sort of imagine,

“这就是下一个壮举”，

a bunch of people in suits and white shirts and pencil protectors,

我以为他们会被碾压，

结果委员会主席只是直视着我，

and I did this sort of crazy, wild,

并说：“是什么样的壮举呢？”

"This is all the next great thing,"

and I thought they would be blown over,

我当时就像这样说，“好吧，你想要星际迷航？

and instead the chairman of the committee just looked at me straight in the eye,

那就给你星际迷航。”

那么我来告诉各位壮举到底是什么。

and said, "So what's the big idea?"

多年来我们一直用生物来制造生物材料。

So I was like, "OK, you want Star Trek?

We'll do Star Trek."

这是一张在格拉斯哥外拍摄的精彩照片，

And so let me tell you what the big idea is.

可以看得到很多很棒的生物材料。

We've used organisms to make biomaterials for years.

有可以建造房屋的树，

So here's a great picture taken outside of Glasgow,

也有可以获得羊毛的羊，

and you can see lots of great biomaterials there.

同时还可以从羊身上获得皮革。

There are trees that you could use to build houses.

只要快速扫一眼这个房间， 我敢说这个房间里没有人

There are sheep where you can get your wool from.

不用动植物制品，

You could get leather from the sheep.

而用某种生物材料。

不过你猜怎么着？

Just quickly glancing around the room, I'll bet there's no one in this room

我们并不打算把羊、树等东西带到火星上去，

that doesn't have some kind of animal or plant product on them,

因为载重问题，那样行不通。

some kind of biomaterial.

但是我们打算采用下述办法来解决。

But you know what?

We're not going to take sheep and trees and stuff to Mars.

这是枯草芽孢杆菌，

你看到的那些白点是孢子。

That's nuts, because of the upmass problem.

这会变成一种细菌，它能形成令人难以置信的抗性孢子，

But we are going to take things like this.

This is Bacillus subtilis.

当我说是难以置信的抗性时， 它们已经证明了自己。

Those white dots that you see are spores.

枯草芽孢杆菌孢子已经在 LDEF 上飞行了将近6年，

This happens to be a bacterium that can form incredibly resistant spores,

所谓 LDEF 即 长时间暴露装置，

and when I say incredibly resistant, they've proven themselves.

其中一些在太空中幸存下来。

Bacillus subtilis spores have been flown on what was called LDEF,

不可思议的是，比我们任何人都强。

Long Duration Exposure Facility, for almost six years

那为什么不只是利用这些能力，

and some of them survived that in space.

来制造木头或羊毛或蜘蛛丝， 或者其他别的什么，

Unbelievable, a lot better than any of us can do.

并将它们放入枯草芽孢杆菌孢子中，

So why not just take the capabilities,

然后带着它们和你一起离开地球？

like to make wood or to make wool or spider silk or whatever,

那么当你离开地球以后， 将做什么呢？

and put them in Bacillus subtilis spores,

这是 Buzz Aldrin 从 Eagle 回望的标志性照片，

and take those with you off planet?

当时他刚着陆在月球表面， 嗯，差不多50年前了。

So what are you going to do when you're off planet?

Here's an iconic picture of Buzz Aldrin looking back at the Eagle

现在如果你要花3天时间前往月球，

而且你是第一个踏上月球的人，

when he landed, oh, it was almost 50 years ago, on the surface of the Moon.

是的，你可以住在罐子里，

但你不会想这样住个一年半载的。

Now if you're going to go to the Moon for three days

所以实际上我在加利福尼亚做了一个测算。

and you're the first person to set foot,

yeah, you can live in a tin can,

我查询了恶魔岛牢房的平均大小，

but you wouldn't want to do that for, say, a year and a half.

So I did actually a calculation, being in California.

有了新的发现，

在登月舱 Eagle 的大小，

I looked at what the average size of a cell at Alcatraz is,

大约是恶魔岛一个牢房的大小，

and I have news for you,

如果它只有五英尺高的话。

the volume in the Eagle there, in the Lunar Module,

生活空间如此狭小，难以置信。

was about the size of a cell at Alcatraz

你不能要求一个人长时间待在那里。

if it were only five feet high.

那么为什么不带上这些生物材料来制造点儿东西呢？

So incredibly cramped living quarters.

这张图片来自我的建筑师同事

You just can't ask a human to stay in there for long periods of time.

克里斯·毛雷尔，展示了我们已完成的提案，

So why not take these biomaterials and make something?

稍后我将会说明

为什么我在整个演讲中站在这里时

So here's an image that a colleague of mine

who is an architect, Chris Maurer, has done of what we've been proposing,

拿着一个形似干瘪的三明治的东西。

我们所提出的解决火星栖息地的办法

and we'll get to the point

of why I've been standing up here holding something

that looks like a dried sandwich this whole lecture.

就在于这个真菌。

So we've proposed that the solution to the habitat problem on Mars

接下来我可能会让大家

以后失去吃蘑菇的兴趣。

让我们来讨论下真菌。

could just simply lie in a fungus.

你可能比较熟悉这种真菌的子实体，

So I'm now probably going to turn off everyone

那就是蘑菇。

from ever eating a mushroom again.

但我们真正感兴趣的是表面下的东西，

So let's talk about fungi for a second.

菌丝，

So you're probably familiar with this fruiting body of the fungus.

这些根状的毛发结构

That's the mushroom.

是蘑菇的主要部分。

But what we're interested in actually is what's beneath the surface there,

事实证明，你可以拿一些菌丝

the mycelium,

which are these root hair-like structures

—— 我拍了张显微照片 ——

that are really the main part of the mushroom.

把菌丝放在模具里，

再给它们一些食物 ——

Well, it turns out you can take those --

不需要太多，可以在锯末上种植它们 ——

there's a micrograph I did --

这一片生长在锯末上，

and you can put them in a mold

菌丝会充满整个结构

and give them a little food --

and it doesn't take much, you can grow these things on sawdust --

以制造出某些东西。

实际上我们在火星模拟环境里试种过菌丝体。

so this piece here was grown on sawdust,

and that mycelium then will fill that structure

由于没人实际去过火星表面，

所以这是模拟的火星表面，

to make something.

可以看到外面那些毛发状的菌丝体。

We've actually tried growing mycelium on Mars Simulant.

真是太神奇了。

So no one's actually gone to the surface of Mars,

你能把这东西做得多结实？

but this is a simulated surface of Mars,

嗯，我可以提供一些数据和测试之类的，

and you can see those hair-like mycelia out there.

但我认为也许最好的方式是直接描述它。

It's really amazing stuff.

我的一个学生证明可以这样做。

How strong can you make these things?

Well, you know, I could give you numbers and tests and so on,

为了做到这点，接下来你需要 搞清楚如何将其至于环境中。

but I think that's probably the best way to describe it.

这到底是怎么发生的呢？

我是说，这是个不错的主意，林恩，

There's one of my students proving that you can do this.

但你要怎么做到呢？

To do this, then, you've got to figure out how to put it in context.

所以我们所说的是， 比如你在实验室里培养菌丝，

How's this actually going to happen?

然后填满一个可能很小的 像房子一样的结构，

I mean, this is a great idea, Lynn,

but how are you going to get from here to there?

So what we're saying is you grow up the mycelium in the lab, for example

可能就是那种充气的双层塑料袋，

and then you fill up a little structure, maybe a house-like structure that's tiny,

—— 看到这个我就想到 L.L.Bean （户外用品电商品牌）。

然后把它放入火箭飞船并发送到火星。

that is maybe a double-bagged sort of plastic thing, like an inflatable --

I sort of think L.L.Bean when I see this.

火箭着陆，

And then you put it in a rocket ship and you send it off to Mars.

你打开袋子，

再加以一点儿水，

瞧，你已经有栖息地了！

Rocket lands,

你知道那多酷吗？

you release the bag

最棒的就是你不必带上预制物品。

and you add a little water,

and voila, you've got your habitat.

因此，我们估计可以减少约90%的载重质量，

You know, how cool would that be?

NASA目前建议采用大型的钢结构，

And the beauty of that is you don't have to take something prebuilt.

And so our estimates are that we could save 90 percent of the mass

如果我们实际在现场种植的话。

我还有一个不错的主意。

that NASA is currently proposing by taking up a big steel structure

数字化信息怎么样？

真正有趣之处是，你和父母之间有物理连接 （译者注：指你和父母之间的遗传关系），

if we actually grow it on site.

他们也很他们的父母也有物理连接， 以此类推，

So let me give you another big idea.

一直可以回溯到生命的起源。

What about digital information?

What's really interesting is you have a physical link to your parents

那种连续性从未打破。

而事实上，今天我们能够做到。

and they have a physical link to their parents, and so on,

因此，我们实验室每天都有学生

all the way back to the origin of life.

—— 波士顿的学生也做这个 ——

You have never broken that continuum.

But the fact is that we can do that today.

排列 DNA 序列，

So we have students every day in our labs --

然后点击“发送”按钮，

将序列发送到当地的 DNA 合成公司。

students in Boston even do this --

that make up DNA sequences

一旦你打破了那种物理连接，

and they hit the "send" button

把它发送到其他地方，

and they send them to their local DNA synthesis company.

这与你发送到哈尔斯河对岸，

Now once you break that physical link

还是发送到火星上没有关系。

你已经打破了那种物理连接。

where you're sending it across town,

那么一旦你在火星上，

it doesn't matter if you're sending it across the Charles River

或者在河对岸或其他地方，

or if you're sending that information to Mars.

你能携带数字信息，

You've broken that physical link.

合成物理 DNA，

So then, once you're on Mars,

导入到另一个生物体，

or across the river or wherever,

你瞧，你已经获得了新能力。

you can take that digital information,

再一次，你打破了物理连接。那是巨大的。

synthesize the physical DNA,

化学怎么样？

put it maybe in another organism

and voila, you've got new capabilities there.

我们在地球上的生物化学，

同样已有数千年的历史了。

So again, you've broken that physical link. That's huge.

我敢打赌，这个房间里的每个人今天都吃过一些

What about chemistry?

Biology does chemistry for us on Earth,

生物化学制品。

and again has for literally thousands of years.

我给大家一个明显的提示。

另一个想法怎么样？

I bet virtually everyone in this room has eaten something today

使用DNA自身制作一个电线？

that has been made by biology doing chemistry.

再说一次，因为我们努力缩小化一切。

Let me give you a big hint there.

DNA 确实很便宜。

What about another idea?

What about using DNA itself to make a wire?

草莓有数亿的 DNA 。

你可以随身带上一个草莓，分离出 DNA，

Because again, we're trying to miniaturize everything.

DNA is really cheap.

我的一个学生已经找到了一种方法，

Strawberries have a gazillion amount of DNA.

获取 DNA 然后稍作调整，

You know, you could take a strawberry with you, isolate the DNA,

这样就可以在特定的位置结合上银原子，

and one of my students has figured out a way

从而制作出电线。

to take DNA and tweak it a little bit

很酷吧？

so that you can incorporate silver atoms in very specific places,

既然谈到了金属，

我们需要将金属用到集成电路之类的东西上。

thus making an electrical wire.

How cool is that?

可能我也会想要用于一些结构上，等等。

So while we're on the subject of metals,

we're going to need to use metals for things like integrated circuits.

集成电路之类的最终会坏掉。

这个部分有很多可以讲， 不过这里我就不多说了。

Probably we're going to want it for some structures, and so on.

它们坏掉以后，

And things like integrated circuits ultimately go bad.

你从哪里能找到那些金属呢？

当然，你可以通过重型装备来挖掘，

We could talk a lot about that, but I'm going to leave it at that,

但你又会遇到那个载重问题。

that they do go bad,

我经常告诉人们，为制造新手机找到金属的最好方法

and so where are you going to get those metals?

Yeah, you could try to mine them with heavy equipment,

就是回收旧手机。

如果把生物学当作一项技术

but you get that upmass problem.

And I always tell people, the best way to find the metals for a new cell phone

来获取这些金属会怎么样？

你会怎么做呢？

is in a dead cell phone.

看看维他命瓶身后面，

So what if you take biology

你就会知道

as the technology to get these metals out?

人体必需的所有元素种类。

And how do you do this?

Well, take a look at the back of a vitamin bottle

与其他生物一样，我们需要各种各样的蛋白质，

and you'll get an idea of all the sorts of metals

它们能与特定的金属结合。

that we actually use in our bodies.

如果我们现在获得了那些蛋白质，

So we have a lot of proteins as well as other organisms

并把它们附着在这种真菌的菌丝上，

that can actually specifically bind metals.

做成一个过滤器， 那么我们就可以用一种特别的方式

So what if we now take those proteins

获得这些金属， 而且不需要使用大型采矿装备，

and maybe attach them to this fungal mycelium

甚至更棒的是，我们实际上验证了一个概念：

and make a filter so we can start to pull those metals out

我们用那些从蛋白质取出的金属，

in a very specific way without big mining equipment,

通过等离子打印机重印出一个集成电路。

and, even better, we've actually got a proof of concept

where we've then taken those metals that we pulled out with proteins

再一次，多酷啊！

电力：NASA的一个中心负责人问我说，

and reprinted an integrated circuit using a plasma printer.

是否能够吸收化学能并转化为电能。

Again, how cool?

Electricity: I was asked by a head of one of the NASA centers

好消息是，不只是电鳗可以做到，

if you could ever take chemical energy and turn that into electrical energy.

这里的每一个活人都可以

发电。

Well, the great news is it's not just the electric eel that does it.

今天各位所吃的食物中，有一部分

用于维持你体内的神经细胞运转。

Everybody in this room who is still alive and functioning

甚至是其他无知觉的生物，

is doing that.

Part of the food that you've eaten today

也会产生电能，

has gone to operate the nerve cells in your body.

细菌也是。

有些细菌非常擅长制造微小的电线。

But even other organisms, nonsentient ones,

因此，如果我们能够

把化学能转化为电能，

are creating electric energy,

even bacteria.

那该多酷啊！又酷了一次:)

Some bacteria are very good at making little wires.

这是我们谈到的一些大胆的设想。

So if we can harvest that ability

我再介绍一个：生命 2.0

of turning chemical energy into electrical energy,

举个例子，我们身体里所有的糖都是右旋结构。

again, how cool would that be?

So here are some of the big ideas we talked about.

为什么我们不制造有左旋结构糖的生物呢？

Let me try one more: life 2.0.

为什么不制造一种生物来做 今天其他生物都做不到的事呢？

So for example, all of the sugars in our body are right-handed.

Why shouldn't we make an organism with left-handed sugars?

生物通常都已进化到适应一个非常特定的环境。

Why not make an organism that can do things that no organism can do today?

这是一只爬树的狮子，

随后我给他拍了一张照片，

So organisms normally have evolved to live in very specific environments.

当躺在地上的时候，他高兴多了。

所以生物为特定的环境而设计。

So here's this lion cub literally up a tree,

但是如果你回到合成生物学的想法，

and I took a picture of him a bit later,

and he was a lot happier when he was down on the ground.

并稍作调整呢？

这是我们很喜欢的黄石公园景点之一，

So organisms are designed for specific environments.

章鱼泉。

But what if you can go back to that idea of synthetic biology

如果你稍微斜着头观察，

它看起来就像一个身体和伸出的触手。

and tweak 'em around?

So here is one of our favorite places in Yellowstone National Park.

这里的温度高于沸水的温度。

This is Octopus Springs.

可以看到在边缘的那些嗜热生物，

If you tilt your head a little bit,

it sort of looks like a body and tentacles coming out.

颜色与对应的温度很匹配，

非常非常高的温度。

It's above the boiling temperature of water.

Those organisms that you see on the edge and the colors

那么为什么不用那些 能够生活在极端条件下的生物，

actually match the temperatures that are there,

不管是高温，或者低温，

very, very high-temperature thermophiles.

还是低 pH值，或者搞 pH值，

或者高盐，或者高辐射，

So why not take organisms that can live at extremes,

获得一些那样的能力，

whether it's high temperature or low temperature

转移到其他生物体中。

or low pH or high pH

我的学生为这个项目起了一个名字，

or high salt or high levels of radiation,

我也很喜欢，叫做“地狱细胞”。

and take some of those capabilities

因此我们已经实现了。

and put it into other organisms.

我们用有机体，做了一些调整，让其挑战极限。

And this is a project that my students have called,

这对于让我们离开地球，

and I love this, the "hell cell."

以及了解宇宙生命都至关重要。

And so we've done that.

We've taken organisms and sort of tweaked them and pushed them to the edges.

最后让我总结两个想法。

And this is important for getting us off planet

and also for understanding what life is like in the universe.

首先是一个整体的想法，

我们地球人定居外星的所有需求，

So let me give you just a couple of final thoughts.

某种程度上与我们在地球上的完全一样，

First is this whole idea that we have all these needs

我们需要食物、住房等等，

for human settlement off planet

不过我们有非常非常不一样的约束：

that are in some ways exactly like we have on the Earth,

载重、可靠性和灵活性等等；

that we need the food and we need the shelter and so on,

但是正因为有些这些地球上所没有的限制，

but we have very, very different constraints

就不得不考虑本土的石化工业

of this upmass problem and the reliability and the flexibility and so on.

或其他方式，

But because we have these constraints that you don't have here,

这些限制使我们必须发挥创造力。

where you might have to think about the indigenous petrochemical industry,

or whatever,

一旦你释放了这种创造力， 由于存在新约束的缘故，

you now have constraints that have to unleash creativity.

你将被迫推动改变游戏规则的技术进步，

别无其他选择。

And once you unleash this creativity because you have the new constraints,

最后，我必须要思考，

you're forcing game-changing technological advances

摆弄生命DNA是个好主意吗？

that you wouldn't have gotten any other way.

Finally, we have to think a little bit,

简单的答案是，

is it a good idea to tinker around with life?

在这个房间里的人也许没有在家里养一窝狼的，

但可能有一只狗，

Well, the sort of easy answer to that is

这个夏天你可能没有吃蜀黍，但吃了玉米。

that probably no one in the room keeps a wolf cub at home,

我们经历生物的遗传改造已经持续

but you might have a puppy or a dog;

1万年甚至更久的时间了。

you probably didn't eat teosinte this summer, but you ate corn.

这是不同的做法，但是突然说

We have been doing genetic modification with organisms

人类绝不该插手物种基因

就有点儿蠢了，

for literally 10,000 or more years.

因为我们目前有能力

This is a different approach, but to say all of a sudden

做对地球和其他生命都

humans should never touch an organism

is kinda silly

更为有利的事情。

because we have that capability now

to do things that are far more beneficial for the planet Earth

接下来的问题是，我们应该这样做吗？

当然，我认为我们不止应该，

and for life beyond that.

至少是为了离开地球，

而且实际上如果我们不借助合成生物学，

And so then the question is, should we?

And of course I feel that not only should we,

我们将永远无法解决载重问题。

所以一旦将生命视为一项技术， 你将会找到解决方法。

at least for getting off Earth,

but actually if we don't use synthetic biology,

说到这里，我将以一贯的方式来收尾，

we will never solve this upmass problem.

So once you think of life as a technology, you've got the solution.

让我们说“ad astra”，意思是“前往星际”。

谢谢你，波士顿。

(鼓掌声)

And so, with that, I'd like to finish the way I always finish,

and say "ad astra," which means, "to the stars."

Thank you very much, Boston.

(Applause)