What caused the fall of one of the most influential empires in history? - Mostafa Minawi

18,530 views ・ 2025-05-06

TED-Ed


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While Istanbul slept in the early hours of April 27th, 1909,
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Sultan Abdulhamid II boarded a westbound train.
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Under cover of darkness, he left the imperial capital—
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bringing an end to his reign.
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For almost six centuries, his family had ruled the Ottoman Empire,
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spanning regions in North Africa, southeastern Europe, and the Middle East.
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But the end of this powerful dynasty had been brewing for years.
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In the late 18th century,
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the Ottomans’ once-feared faction of elite warriors called the Janissaries
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had become inefficient and greedy.
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Their numbers swelled with poorly trained fighters,
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and their outdated weapons led to a series of embarrassing defeats
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that coincided with several economic crises.
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To survive, Sultan Selim III sought to curb the Janissaries’ influence
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and modernize the empire with widespread reforms.
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The warriors rebelled and assassinated Selim,
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but his successor would not be so easily beaten.
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Mahmud II subdued the Janissaries in a massacre known as the Auspicious Event,
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and swiftly replaced the outmoded warriors with a European-style army.
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This was one of many far-reaching efforts to modernize the empire,
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which were continued by Mahmud’s successor.
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Sultan Abdulmejid ushered in an era of reforms known as the Tanzimat,
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or “reordering,”
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where economic and administrative systems were overhauled,
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and subjects from all backgrounds were recruited to work for the government.
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The Tanzimat was hindered by foreign debt and political upheavals.
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But perhaps the era’s biggest challenge was the dynasty’s initiative
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to unite their diverse subjects.
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The Ottoman Empire spanned three continents
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containing numerous religious and ethnic groups,
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including Arabs, Turks, Kurds, Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and more.
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These minority groups were free to choose their language, religion,
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and cultural practices,
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yet most of them were deprived of the full rights of Muslim citizens.
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They had to pay extra taxes
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and were prevented from participating in serving in the military.
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By the mid-19th century,
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this divide was met with pressure from inside and outside the empire
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for reform.
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So Ottoman leaders tried to resolve it
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by introducing an all-inclusive Ottoman national identity.
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This reform signaled a drastic societal shift
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and emphasized legal equality for all subjects,
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alongside new laws concerning citizenship, property, and taxation.
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The newly accorded privileges and reforms were sometimes met with resistance
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by some members of the ruling classes.
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Many minority groups formed separatist movements,
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and European empires, including Russia, France, and Britain,
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further undermined attempts at unity by fueling ethno-nationalist sentiments.
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This discord contributed to the empire losing territories
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in North Africa and the Balkans,
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where large scale ethnic cleansing of local Muslims often followed.
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And efforts to promote pan-Ottoman identity in the remaining provinces
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were met with lukewarm success—
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especially after Sultan Abdulhamid II took the throne.
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While Abdulhamid shared his predecessors’ interest in modernizing reforms,
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extensive building projects, and expanding education,
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he also ruled as an absolute monarch.
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During his reign,
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he suspended the constitution, and supported widespread censorship.
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Political oppression and violence became regular tools of the state,
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including anti-Armenian massacres in Anatolia
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that came to be known as the Hamidian massacres.
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In 1908, a coup by army officers known as the Young Turk Revolution
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curtailed his power and restored the constitution.
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But while his successor Mehmed IV took the throne,
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the Young Turks political party took hold of the power.
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The Committee for Union and Progress encouraged democratic reforms,
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however they also pushed for a new brand of Ottoman nationalism
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centered on Turkish identity.
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This change further alienated non-Turkish Ottomans,
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adding fuel to numerous opposition movements.
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Yet just as this political infighting was heating up,
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European powers initiated an even larger conflict.
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At the dawn of World War I,
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the CUP-controlled government sided with their longtime allies in Germany.
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But following early victories, the war turned disastrous.
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The Ottomans suffered severe losses
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and the highest number of deaths per capita in any warring nation.
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All the while,
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Brits and Russians were supporting the empire’s anti-Ottoman movements,
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including several Armenian organizations.
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In 1915, the CUP responded by issuing the Temporary Law of Deportation,
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effectively authorizing the ethnic cleansing of the Armenian population.
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This policy was carried out with such brutality
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that an estimated 1 million Armenians perished
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in what is now known as the Armenian Genocide.
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By the end of 1918, World War I was over.
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The Ottoman’s side had lost,
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and the victors began hastily carving up what remained of the empire
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into new nation-states that suited their interests.
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The British promised some ruling families what would become
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Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Jordan.
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The remaining Arab-majority territories were split
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into Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine,
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all of which were divided between the French and British.
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The allies had further plans for Istanbul and Anatolia,
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but the Turkish War of Independence forced a renegotiation.
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Eventually, this led to the creation of the independent Republic of Turkey
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in 1923,
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and the formal end to over six centuries of Ottoman rule.
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